Both dharma and vrata are inviolate, notes Rigveda. Dharma is sacred because it is the divine ordering principle. Dharma is the principle which recognizes the way things are or the nature of things or phenomena.
Dharma and Vrata
S. Kalyanaraman, Ph.D.
Both dharma and vrata are inviolate, notes Rigveda. Dharma is sacred because it is the divine ordering principle. Dharma is the principle which recognizes the way things are or the nature of things or phenomena.
Rigveda notes that ritam ‘Occurrence of Phenomena' or ‘order' is Dharma. Atharva Veda notes: Prithivim dharman.a_ dhr.tam ‘the world is upheld by dharma'. Sanatana Dharma in Bharatiya metaphysics (elaborated further in Buddha, Jaina, Khalsa Pantha thought) is not a moral connotation. It is an inexorable organizing, creative principle which operates on the plane of the aatman and the cosmos.
Sanatana Dharma is thus beyond a law regulating an individual's action. It is the very expression of the divine. Such adherence to the divine principle is the purusharta, the purpose of life.
"It [dharma] is, so to speak, the essential nature of a being, comprising the sum of its particular qualities or characteristics, and determining, by virtue of the tendencies or dispositions it implies, the manner in which this being will conduct itself, either in a general way or in relation to each particular circumstance. The same idea may be applied, not only to a single being, but also to an organized collectivity, to a species, to all the beings included in a cosmic cycle or state of existence, or even to the whole order of the Universe; it then, at one level or another, signifies conformity with the essential nature of beings..." [Rene Guenon (aka Sheikh 'Abd Al Wahid Yahya), Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines]
Such an explanation can also explain why another name for Yama is Dharma. Yama is the organizer of death and he does this within the divine principle of Karma (of cause and effect).
Given the broad spectrum of phenomena explained as Dharma, the cosmos and consciousness are best viewed as metaphysical systems. Thus, pot is the bearer of a property called ‘pot-existence' (iha ghat.ah); dharmin is the property-bearer; dharma is the property. This is how dharma dravya in Jaina thought can be explained as six properties which explain the universe of dravya (substances - animate and inanimate) and dharmin as the subject.
What is Dharma?
Dharma is a complex word. It has no equivalent in English. To understand dharma, we have to inquire into ancient texts of Bharat. Dharma is not Religion. Dharma is a quest for understanding cosmic order of the universe and consciousness order at a personal level.
Dharman
Dharmo raks.ati raks.itah is a remarkable statement by Manu; the roots for the meaning of the term have to be traced in the perceptions of the r.s.i-s from the days of the R.gveda. Yato dharmah tato jayah (success goes hand in hand with righteousness) (MBh. 6.65.18)
Dharma eva hato hanti dharmo raks.ati raks.itah
tasma_ddharmo na hantavyo ma_ no dharmo hatovadhi_t (Manu 8.15)
Dharma protects those who protect it. Those who destroy Dharma get destroyed. Therefore, Dharma should not be destroyed so that we may not be destroyed as a consequence thereof. Dharma is eternal, imperishable. Manu says (Manu 4.239):
na_mutra hi saha_ya_rtham pita_ ma_ta ca tis.t.hatah
na pputrada_ram na jn~a_tidharmostis.t.hati kevalah
When one departs from this world to the other world, neither father nor mother, neither son nor wife will accompany him. Only the Dharma practised by an individual follows him even after death.
Dharman, satya, r.ta
Kim satyam? bhu_tahitam. What is truth? That which leads to well-being of all living beings. This is the question and answer provided by S'ankara. The same applies to Dharma. Satya, ‘the idea of morality' is ‘verily planted in the heart', says Katha Up. 3.9.23. S'ankara notes that while the idea of Dharma may be in the breast of a human being, in reality it is activated only in relation to the specific social environment (nimitta-vis'es.a). Thus, the sense of right and wrong is a unique characteristic of a human being within sentient creation. (M. Hiriyanna, 1975, Indian Conception of Values, Mysore, Kavyalaya Publishers, p. 154)
A word often used in the R.veda is Satya (truth), defined as that on which the universe rests, almost an elucidation of r.ta, the law, principle, or order of things. (RV 10.85.1) Aghamars.an.a notes that r.ta is the eternal law and order of the universe (RV 10.190.1). The concepts of Satya and r.ta are expanded in Dharman, used in the R.gveda.
satyenottabhita_ bhu_mih su_ryen.a_ttabhita_ dya_h
r.tena_diya_s tis.t.hanti divi somo adhi s'ritah
RV 10.85.1 [r.s.i: su_rya_ s_vitri_ (r.s.ika_); devata_: soma] Earth is upheld by truth; heaven is upheld by the sun; the A_dityas are supported by sacrifice, Soma is supreme in heaven. [Truth: i.e., Brahman, the eternal soul].
r.tam ca satyam c_bhi_ddha_t tapaso dhy aja_yata
tato ra_try aja_yata tatah samudra_ arn.avah
RV 10.190.1 [r.s.i: aghamar.s.an.a ma_dhucchandasa; devata_: bha_vavr.tta] Truth (of thought) and truthfulness (of speech) were born of arduous penance, thence was night generated, thence also the watery ocean. [Penance: an allusion to the penance of Brahma_ preceding creation; tatah = from that penance, or from him (Brahma_); watery ocean: samudra = firmament and ocean (arn.ava)].
Definition of Dharma
Maha_na_rayan.opanis.ad (Section 79.7) declares thus:
Dharmo vis'vasya jagatah pratis.t.ha_
loke dharmis.t.ha praja_ upasarpanti
dharmen.a pa_pamapanudati
dharme sarvam pratis.thitam
tasma_ddharmam paramam vadanti
Dharma constitutes the foundation of all affairs in the world. People respect those who adhere to Dharma. Dharma insulates (man) against sinful thoughts. Everything in this world is founded on Dharma. Dharma, therefore, is considered supreme.
The supremacy of Dharma is emphasized in Br.hada_ran.yakopanis.ad:
tadetat ks.atrasya ks.atram yaddharmah
tasma_ddharma_tparam na_sti
atho abali_ya_n bali_ya_msama_s'amsate dharmen.a
yatha ra_ja_ evam
The law (Dharma) is the king of kings. No one is superior to Dharma. The Dharma aided by the power of the king enables the weak to prevail over the strong.
ta_dr.s'oyamanupras'no yatra dharmah sudurlabhah
dus.karah pratisankhya_tum tatkena_tra vyavasyati
prabhava_rtha_ya bhu_ta_na_m dharmapravanam kr.tam
yah sya_tprabhavasamyuktah sa dharma iti nis'cayah (MBh. S'a_ntiparva 109.9-11)
It is most difficult to define Dharma. Dharma has been explained to be that which helps the upliftment of living beings. Therefore, that which ensures the welfare of living beings is surely Dharma. The learned r.s.i-s have declared that, which sustains is Dharma.
Jaimini, cited in Sabarabha_s.ya (pp. 4-7) states:
sa hi ni s'reyasena purus.am samyunakti_ti pratija_ni_mahe tadabhidhi_yate
(Dharma is that which is indicated by the Vedas as conducive to the highest good)
This is further emphasised in Karn.a Parva (ch. 69, verse 58):
dha_ran.a_d dharma ityua_hurdharmo dha_rayate praja_h
yat sya_d dha_ran.asamyuktam sa dharma iti nis'cayah
Dharma sustains the society; Dharma maintains the social order; Dharma ensures well-being and progress of humanity; Dharma is surely that which fulfils these objectives.
In the context of the purus.a_rtha-s or pursuits of human beings, the supremacy of Dharma is declared by Manu in emphatic terms (Manu 2.224 and 4.176):
dharma_rtha_vus.yate s'reyah ka_ma_rtho dharma eva ca
artha eveha va_ s'reyastrivargam iti tu sthitih
parityajedarthaka_mau yau sya_ta_ dharmavarjitau
dharma ca_pyasukhodarka lokavikrus.t.ameva ya
To achieve welfare and happiness, some declare Dharma and Artha are good. Others declare that Artha and Ka_ma are better. Still others declare that Dharma is the best. There are also persons who declare Artha alone secures happiness. But the correct view is that the aggregate of Dharma, Artha and Ka_ma (Trivarga) secures welfare and happiness. However, discard the desire (ka_ma) and material wealth (artha) if contrary to Dharma; as also, any usage or custom or rules regarded as source of Dharma if at any time they were to lead to unhappiness or arous people's indignation.
Sources of Dharma
Manu Smr.ti explains the sources of dharma as follows:
Vedokhilo dharmamu_lam smr.tis'i_le ca tadvida_m
a_ca_ras'caiva sa_dhu_na_matmanastus.t.ireva ca (Manu 2.6)
The Veda is the first source of Dharma. The exposition by the Seers, handed down from generation to generation by memory, the virtuous conduct of those who are well-versed in the Veda, and lastly, what is agreeable to the good conscience, are the other sources.
Dharman is used in the R.gveda in the following r.ca-s, generally translated as nature of things or duties (to be performed):
tri_n.i pada_ vi cakrame vis.n.ur gopa_ ada_bhyah
ato dharma_n.i dha_rayan
RV1.022.18 [r.s.i: medha_tithi ka_n.va; devata_: vis.n.u] Vis.n.u, the preserver, the uninjurable, stepped three steps, upholding thereby righteous acts. [gopa_, sarvasya jagato raks.akah: the preserver of all the worlds; the principal attribute of Vis.n.u].
s'akamayam dhu_mam a_ra_d apas'yam vis'u_vata_ para ena_rvaran.a
uks.a_n.am pr.s'nim apacanta vi_ra_s ta_ni dharma_n.i prathama_ny a_san
RV1.164.43 [r.s.i: di_rghatama_ aucatthya: devata_: prathama_rddha s'akadhu_ma, dviti_ya_rddha soma] I beheld near (me) the smoke of burning cow-dung; and by that tall-pervading means (effect), discovered the cause (fire); the priests have the Soma ox, for such are their first duties. [The Soma ox: uks.a_n.am pr.s'nim apacanta: pr.s'ni = Soma; uks.a_n.am = the shedder or bestower of the reward of the sacrifice].
Yajn~ena yajn~am ayajanta deva_s ta_ni dharma_n.i prathama_ny a_san
te ha na_kam mahima_nah sacanta yatra pu_rve sa_dhya_h santi deva_h
RV1.164.50 [r.s.i: di_rghatama_ aucatthya: devata_: sa_dhya]. The uniform water passes upwards and downwards in the course of days; clouds give joy to the earth; fires rejoice the heaven.
3.3.1 [r.s.i: vis'va_mitra ga_thina; devata_: vais'va_nara agni] Intelligent (worshippers), offer to the powerful Vais'va_nara precious things at holy rites, that they may go (the way of the good), for the immortal Agni worships the gods; therefore, let no one violate eternal duties.
samidhyama_nah prathama_nu dharma_ sam aktubhir ajyate vis'vava_rah
s'ocis'kes'o ghr.tanirn.ik pa_vakah suyajn~o agnir yajatha_ya deva_n
RV3.017.1[r.s.i: kata vais'va_mitra; devata_: agni; chanda: tris.t.up] The righteous (Agni) when first kindled on the several (altars) the object of adoration by all, whose hair is flame, and who is cleansed with butter, the purifier, the worthy-worshipped, is sprinkled with oblations for the worship of the gods. [The righteous Agni: prathama_nudharma_: dharma is a synonym of Agni; or, the construction may be anudharma, according to law or religion].
Indra r.bhuma_n va_java_n matsveha no smin savane s'acya_ purus.t.uta
ima_ni tubhyam svasara_n.i yemire vrata_ deva_na_m manus.as' ca dharmabhih
RV3.060.06 [r.s.i: vis'va_mitra ga_thina; devata_;5,6 r.bhugan.a and indra] Indra, the praised of many, associated with R.bhu, and with Va_ja, exult with S'aci, at this our sacrifice; these self-revolving (days) are devoted to you, as well as the ceremonies (addressed) to the gods, and the virtuous acts of man. [S'aci = karman, act, rite].
Samidha_nah sahasrajid agne dharma_n.i pus.yasi
deva_na_m du_ta ukthyah
RV5.026.06 [r.s.i: vasu_yu a_treya; devata_: Agni] Victor over thousands, you favour, when kindled our holy rites, the honoured messenger of the gods.
dharman.a_ mitra_varun.a_ vipas'cita_ vrata_ raks.ethe asurasya ma_yaya_
r.tena vis'vam bhuvanam vi ra_jathah su_ryam a_ dhattho divi citryam ratham
RV5.063.07 [r.s.i: arcana_na_ a_treya; devata_: mitra_varun.a] Discerning, sagacious, Mitra and Varun.a, by your office you protect pious rites, through the power of the emitter of showers; you illumine the whole world with water; you sustain the sun, the adorable chariot in the sky.
vratena stho dhruvaks.ema_ dharman.a_ ya_tayajjana_
ni barhis.i sadatam somapi_taye
RV5.072.02 [r.s.i: ba_huvr.kta a_treya; devata_: mitra_varun.a] Steady are you in your functions, whom men animate by (their) devotion; come and sit down upon the sacred grass to drink the Soma libation.
bhagaste hastamagrihi_t savita_ hastamagrahi_t patni_ tvamasi dharman.a_ham gr.hapatistava
Bhaga has grasped your hand; Savita_ has grasped your hand; you are (my) spouse by ordinance (dharman), I your house-lord. [Ppp. Reads dha_ta_ for bhagas] Atharva Veda 14.1.51 [Marriage Ceremonies] cf. Va_jasneyi Sam.hita_ 10.29
Dharma (interpreted sometimes as ‘custom' or ‘law') is used in:
R.tam satyam tapo ra_s.t.ram s'ramo dharmas'ca karma ca bhu_tam bhavis.yaducchis.t.e vi_ryam laks.mi_rbalam bale
Righteousness, truth, penance, kingship, soil, and virtue (Dharma) and deed (Karman), being (bhu_ta), what will be, (is) in the remnant; heroism, fortune (laks.mi_), strength in strength. (Atharva Veda 11.7.17: Extolling the remnant - ucchis.t.a - of the offering) r.ta is explained by manasa yatha_rthasam.kalpanam, ‘right conception'; bale is elucidated as: balavati tasminn uchchis.t.e. Ppp has di_ks.a_ for ra_s.t.ram.
ojas'ca tejas'ca sahas'ca balam ca va_k cendriyam ca s'ri_s'ca dharmas'ca
Both force, and brilliancy, and power, and strength, and speech, and sense (indriya), and fortune, and virtue (dharma) AV 12.5.7 [The bra_hman.a's cow; brahmagavi_ su_kta; AV 12.5.5 starts: tam_dada_nasya brahmagavi_m jinato bra_hman.am ks.atriyasya, ‘of the ks.atriya who takes to himself that bra_hman.a-cow, who scathes the bra_hman.a. When such an action occurs, there departs happiness (sunr.ta_, the heroism, the good luck and also force, brilliange, power etc. etc.]
Iyam na_ri_ patilokam vr.n.a_na_ ni padyata upa tva_ martya pretam dharmam pura_n.amanupa_layanti_ tasyai praja_m dravin.am ceha thehi
This woman, choosing her husband's world, lies down (nipad) by you that are departed, O mortal, continuing to keep (her) ancient duty (Dharma); to her assign you here progeny and property. (AV 18.3.1 [pitr.megha su_kta]) Cf. TS 3.5.2.2; VS 15.6; VS 20.9; VS 30.6
R.ta
R.ta is cognate with r.tu. R.ta is the cyclical order of nature, a cosmic order which regulates the lives of the people and is celebrated through the process of yajn~a-s. The yajn~as are celebrated at the beginning of each r.tu, each ca_turma_sya, a four-month season in a year, dividing the year of 12 months into three seasons. R.tu is ‘season' (RV 1.49.3; 84.18).
R.tv-ij is a priest who conducts the yajn~a. The seven priests enumerated in the R.gveda (RV 2.1.2) are: hotr., potr., nes.t.r., agni_dh, pras'a_str., adhvaryu, Brahman. They are collectively called sapta-hotr., a term which occurs frequently in the R.gveda. The term s'arad is a designation for a year; it denotes the harvest; the other terms used to denote a year are: hima_ and sama_. AV 8.9.17 divides the year into two periods of six months which may be an indication of an older tradition. RV 1.164.2 (tri-na_bhi), RV 1.164.48 (tri_n.i nabhya_ni) may refer to three seasons. Cha_turma_sya_ni are four-monthly yajn~a-s performed at the beginning of the season (cf. S'Br. 14.1.1.28). RV 10.90.6 refers to vasanta (spring), gri_s.ma (summer) and s'arad (autumn). Other seasons may be referred to by the terms in the R.gveda: pra_-vr.s. (rainy season), hima_, hemanta (winter season). RV 5.14.4; 10.91.4 may also refer to three seasons: ga_vah (spring), a_pah (rains) and svar (= gharma, summer). A_pastamba S'rauta Su_tra (8.4.2) refers to the three seasons: r.ta, gharma and os.adhi. Hemanta is the last season according to the S'Br. (1.5.3.13)
Five seasons are mentioned in other texts (AV 8.2.22; 9.15; 13.1.18; TS 1.6.2.3; 4.3.3.1,2; 5.1.10.3; 3.1.2; 4.12.2; 6.10.1; 7.2.4; 7.1.18.1.2; MS 1.7.3; 3.4.8; 13.1; Ka_t.haka Sam.hita_ 4.14; 9.16; VS 10.10-14; S'Br. 1.3.5.11; 7.2.2.3; TBr. 3.10.4.1; 11.10.4; cf. RV 1.164.13): vasanta, gri_s.ma, vars.a_, s'arad, hemanta-s'is'ira. Sometimes vars.a_-s'arad are combined into one season (S'Br. 13.6.1.10.11). Dividing hemanta-s'is'ira into two seasons, six seasons are identified. (AV 6.55.2; 7.1.36; TS 5.1.5.2; 7.3; 2.6.1; MS 1.7.3; 3.11.12; KS 8.6; VS 21.23-38; S'Br. 1.7.2.21; 2.4.2.24; 12.8.2.34; TBr. 2.6.19; cf. RV 1.23.15). An intercalary month may also be reckoned as a season making the seasons seven. (RV. 6.61.2; 8.9.18; S'Br. 8.5.1.15; 9.1.2.31; 2.3.45; 3.1.19; 5.2.8; cf. AV 4.11.9; RV 1.164.1)
R.n.a
R.n.a means, in the metaphorical sense, in the R.gveda, ‘debt'. (RV 2.27.4) Debt is often contracted at dicing. (RV 10.34.10; AV 6.119.1) Paying off a debt was r.n.am swam-ni_ (RV 8.47.17 = AV 6.46.3). There is also an allusion to contracting debt without intention of payment (AV 6.119.1). Non-payment of a debt may result in the dicer becoming a slave (RV 10.34). RV 10.34.4 may refer to the binding (to a post, dru-pada) and taking away of a debtor. RV 1.169.7 may also refer to a similar binding of a debtor. AV 6.115.2.3 may also refer to debt with an allusion to binding to a post as a punishment, as a pressure put on the debtor to pay up the debt. Three hymns of AV (AV 6.117-119) are interpreted in Kaus'ika Su_tra (xlvi. 36-40) may refer to the occasion of the payment of a debt after the creditor's decease.
The concept of r.n.a is expanded to a pious obligation towards (1) deva; (2) pitr.; (3) r.s.i; and (4) ma_nava. The Great Epic (A_diparva Ch. 120, 17-20) explains:
r.n.aais'caturbhih samyukta_ ja_yante ma_nava_ bhudi
pitr.deva_r.s.imanujairdeyam tebhyas'r dharmatah
yajn~aistu deva_n pri_n.a_ti sva_dhya_yatapasa_ muni_n
putraih s'raddhaih pitr.s'ca_i a_nr.s'amsyena ma_nava_n
Every individual should discharge four pious obligations. They are devar.n.a (debt to god), pitr.r.n.a (debt to ancestors), r.s.ir.n.a (debt to teachers and seers) and manavar.n.a (debt to humanity). A person should discharge pitr.r.n.a by maintaining continuity of the family; devar.n.a by worship; r.s.ir.n.a by the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge; and ma_navar.n.a by every type of social service.
Since the individual is the foundation for a harmonious society, the obligations are to be discharged during various stages of a person's life and are referred to as a_s'rama-dharma (a_s'rama further classified as related to acquisition of knowledge as a student, discharging family responsibilities as a householder and devoting oneself to social service and ultimately renunciation of temporal desires -- brahmacarya_s'rama-, gr.hasta_s'rama-, va_naprastha_s'rama- and sanya_s'a_s'rama-dharma. Samska_ra-s a (trans. sacraments) are prescribed for each stage of life.
Jaina metaphysical categories: Dharma and Adharma
In the Jaina thought, dharma and adharma are defined as the principle of motion and principle of rest; this is a unique characterization in Jaina metaphysics. The two phenomena are said to pervade the whole of loka-a_ka_s'a; they are subtle; movement is associated with either a ji_va or pudgala (being sakriya dravyas); the movement is dependent upon the presence of dharma. Dharma dravya makes movement possible; an analogy is provided by fish swimming, while swimming is impossible without the presence of water. Adharma dravya enables a moving object, living or non-living to come to rest. The analogy is of a bird coming to a stop by ceasing to beat its wings; this is contingent upon the bird ceasing to fly perching on a tree branch or on the ground. The two principles, dharma and adharma account for the definite structure of the world. So, too, ka_la is a dravya. [cf. S.K. Chatterji et al. (eds.), 1937, The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. I, Calcutta, Ramakrishna Mission, p. 425].
Ten duties (dharma_h) are prescribed for the Jaina monks: ks.ama_ (khama_, endurance), ma_rdavam (maddavam, humility), a_rjavam (ajjavam, uprightness), s'aucam (s'oyam, desirelessness), satyam (saccam, truth), samyamah (samjame, self-discipline), tapah (tave, penance), tya_gah (ciya_ge, renunciation), a_imcanyam (a_kimcaniya_, possessionlessness), brahmacaryam (bambham, chastity).
Now as regards the precise character of Dharma. Broadly speaking, there are three views. According to some Mi_ma_msakas, we have to understand by Dharma an action. But action being transient, it cannot by itself account for the result, whose attainment is often put off to a later day. So it is believed that, before it is completed, the act produces an appropriate effect, called apu_rva, which abides in the self of the agent until its reqard is reaped by him.
Dharma, then, in this view, yields its fruit through the intermediary of apu_rva. According to some others, like the followers of the Nya_ya-vais'es.ika, it is this apu_rva and not the action, that is designated by Dharma. It thus becomes here a quality characterising the self. Finally, according to theistic doctrines, Dharma is neither an action nor a quality; it is rather the grace (prasa_da) of God, the consequence of our meritorious deeds that is so called, and explains the conferment of the reward. But, however its exact character may be explained. The noteworthy point about Dharma is that it is conceived as instrumental to the attainment of some good or the avoidance of some evil. S'abara, for example, defines it as 'what conduces to good'. (S'reyaskara eva dharmah -- 1.1.2)"(M. Hiriyanna, 1975, Indian Conception of Values, Mysore, Kavyalaya Publishers, pp. 159-160)
Buddha Dhamma
In the Buddhist thought: anussava itiha-itiha-parampara_-pit.aka-sampada_ dhamma - a system of moral discipline which is based upon customs, usages, or traditions handed down from time immemorial. (Majjhima-nika_ya, I.520) In broad terms, dhamma may have meant phenomena. Buddhist thought recognized the dhamma as applied to the upa_saka (layperson), pabbajita (wanderer), and the arhat (enlightened). Dhamma as an ideal already accepted by many people and as it applied to the upa_saka (layperson) was elaborated, about 250 BCE, in As'oka's Rock Edict Nos.1, 3, 7, 9 and 11, 12, Pillar Edict, No. 2 and 3 1, In the 13th Edict, As'oka also notes, in an address to his sons and grandsons that he himself found pleasure in conquests by the Dhamma and not in conquests by the sword. On monuments of the third century BCE, there is a reference to a donor described with the epithet, dhamma-kathika; the term is explained as, 'preacher of the system', dhamma signifying the philosophical and ethical doctrine as distinct from the Vinaya, the Rules of the Order. (T.W. Rhys Davids, 1902, Buddhist India, repr. Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, p. 167; Edict citations, pp. 295-297)
Sa_ma_nya Dharma, the ethic
The moral edicts echo the statement of Manu:
Ahimsa_ satyamasteyam s'aucamindriyanigrahah
etam sa_ma_sikam dharma ca_turvarn.yebravi_nmanuh (Manu 10.63)
Non-violence, truthfulness, not acquiring illegitimate wealth, purity and control of senses are, in brief, the common dharma for all the varn.a-s.
adharmen.aaidhate ta_vat tato bhadra_n.i pas'ati tatah sapatna_n jayati samu_lastu vinas'yati
Those who indulge in adharma attain immediate success and secure fulfilment of their desires. They overpower their opponents. But ultimately their ruin down in the roots is certain.
The ethical code is emphasised in the Great Epic (S'a_ntiparva 6-8):
Akrodhah satyavacanam samvibha_gah ks.ama_ tatha_
prajanah sves.u da_res.u s'aucamadroha eva ca
a_rjavambhr.tyabharan.am navaite sa_rvavarn.ika_h
Truthfulness, to be free from anger, sharing wealth with others, forgiveness, procreation of children from one's wife alone, purity, absence of enmity, straightforwardness and maintaining persons dependent on oneself are the nine rules of the Dharma of persons belonging to all the varn.a-s.
Morality
Exposure of children - Ka_t.haka Sam.hita_ (27.9) [cf. TS 6.5.10.3; S'a_n:kha_yana S'rauta Su_tra 15.17.12; Nirukta 3.4] may refer to an exposure of children or getting rid of a daughter on her marriage, or just laying the child aside, while a boy was lifted up.
Exposure of the aged - R.gveda (8.51.2) and AV (18.2.34) refer to ud-hita_h (exposed persons). The latter passage may be a reference to bodies being exposed after death to elements (a practice followed by the Parsi_s). The RV passage refers to some who may have been cast out. The RV reference to Cyavana (RV 1.116.10; 117.13; 118.6; 5.74.5; 7.68.6; 71.5; 10.39.4) as an old decrepit man, whom the As'vins restored to youth and strength may be cited as an example of exposure of the aged.
Prostitution - R.gveda refers to the putting away of an illegitimate child (RV 2.29.1); brotherless girls were often reduced to becoming prostitutes (RV 1.124.7; 4.5.5; AV 1.17.1). The terms pum.s'cali_ (AV 15.2) and maha_nagni_ (Av 14.1.36; 20.136.5; AiBr. 1.27) may mean ‘harlot'. Other references to prostitution are: RV 8.17.7; RV 1.167.4 (may be a reference to polyandry). VS (30.6) refers to kuma_ri_-putra (son of a maiden); RV (4.19.9; 30.16, 19; 2.13.12; 15.17) refers to agru_ (son of an unmarried girl), exposed and attacked by animals. VS (30.5), uses the expressions ati_tvari_, vijarjara_; TBr. (3.4.11.1) uses the epithets atis.hadvari_ (apashadvari_) which may indicate prostitution as a profession.
Adultery - TS (5.6.8.3), MS (3.4.7) forbid connection with another man's wife during certain rites. Varun.a-pragha_sas (MS 1.10.11; S'Br. 2.5.2.20) has a wife naming her lover or lovers; this may have been a means to banish the evil brought on a family by a wife's fall. Br.hada_ran.yaka Upanis.ad (10.61.5-7) prescribes a mantra to expiate relations with the wife of s'rotriya (theological bra_hman.a).
Incest - RV (RV 10.10) refers in disapproval, to Yama and Yami_ and the marriage of brother and sister. Possibly a similar situation is alluded to in RV 10.162.5. RV 10.61.5-7 refers to the marriage of Praja_pati and his daughter, which is explained in the Bra_hman.as (AiBr. 2.33; S'Br. 1.7.4.1; cf. AV 8.6.7).
Social responsibility and the glory of sacrifice, is exquisitely highlighted in the Hitopades'a:
Tyajedekam kulasya_rthe gra_masya_rthe kulam tyajet
gra_mam janapadasya_rthe a_tma_rthe pr.thivi_m tyajet
Sacrifice (or subordinate) individual interest to that of the family; sacrifice family interest to that of the village; sacrifice the interest of the village to that of the nation; renounce all worldly interest if you want your soul to rest in peace.
Vyavaha_ra Dharma, the Criminal and Civil Law
The law of two broad categories: criminal law and civil law are elaborated.
Crime and Punishment: King Administer's Criminal Justice
In Cha_ndogya Upanis.ad (5.11.5), As'vapati provides a list of sinners. The list includes:
•1. a drinker of intoxicating liquor,
•2. a thief, and
•3. One who does not maintain a sacrificial fire
R.gveda (1.191.5; 6.27.3; 7.55.3; 8.29.6) denotes a thief or robber as a taskara. The same term is used in other texts. (AV 4.3.2; 19.49.7; 50.5; VS 11.77.78; 12.62; 16.21; Nirukta 3.14) Another term, stena, is a synonym mentioned along with taskara. (V 8.55.3; AV 19.47.7; 50.5; VS 11.79; 16.21) AV (19.50.5) refers to these terms as connoting cattle and horse thieves. ChU (5.10.9) lists sins equal in wickedness: stealing gold, drinking spirits, defiling a Guru's bed and the murder of a Brahmin.
ChUp (6.16) mentions the ordeal of the red-hot axe in an accusation of theft. When a theft was taken red-handed, the punishment could be death (Gautama DhS 13.43; A_p DhS 1.9.25.4). In other cases, theft was punished with binding to posts. (AV 19.47.9; 50.1) Pan~cavims'a Br. (14.6.6) refers to divya (ordeal). It is likely that RV 3.53.22 also refers to this ordeal.
TS (6.5.1.2), KS (27.9; 31.7), Kapis.t.hala Sam.hita_ (12.7), MS (4.1.9), TBr. (3.2.8.12), Tar (2.7.8; 8.3), Br.U (4.1.22), Nirukta (6.27), Kaus.i_taki_ U (3.1), AV (6.112.3; 113.2) refers to the slaying of an embryo (bhru_n.a) as a crime. Slaying of a Brahmin is a crime. (TS 2.5.1.2; 5.3.12.1; 6.5.10.2; KS 31.7; TBr. 3.2.8.12; Tar. 1.38; S'Br. 13.3.1.1; Nirukta 6.27) Vasis.t.ha Dharma Su_tra (20.23) interprets bhu_n.a as Brahmin.
Treachery is a crime punishable by death. (Pan~cavims'a Br. 14.6.8, story of Kutsa).
Slaying of a vi_ra (man) is a crime. In R.gveda, vi_ra connotes a (strong and heroic) man (RV 1.18.4; 114.8; 4.29.2; 5.20.4; 61.5); so too in AV (2.26.4; 3.5.8). The word also denotes ‘male offspring,' (RV 2.32.4; 3.4.9; 36.10; 7.34.20; TS 8.1.8.1).
Pan~cavims'a Br. lists eight vi_ras of the king (19.1.4) - perhaps public officers in the administration of the country: 1. king's brother, 2. his son, 3. purohita, 4. mahis.i_, 5. su_ta, 6. gra_man.i, 7. ks.attr., 8. sam.grahi_tr. A variant list occurs while defining ratnin, the people of the royal court in whose houses the ratna-havis, a yajn~a was performed during ra_jasu_ya (royal consecration). TS (1.8.9.1) and TBr. (1.7.3.1) list the ratnins: 1. purohita, 2. ra_janya, 3. mahis.i_ (first wife of the king), 4. va_va_ta (favourite wife of the king), 5. parivr.kti_ (discarded wife), 6. sena_ni_ (commander of the army), 7. su_ta (charioteer), 8. gra_man.i_ (village headman), 9. ks.attr. (chamberlain), 10. sam.grahi_tr. (charioteer or treasurer), 11. bha_gadugha (collector of taxes or divider of food), 12. aks.a_va_pa (superintendent of dicing or thrower of dice) S'Br. (5.3.1.1) provides a variant list: sena_ni_, purohita, mahhis.i_, su_ta, gra_man.i_, ks.attr., sam.grahi_tr., bha_gadugha, aks.a_vapa, go-nikartana (slayer of cows or huntsman) and pa_la_gala (courier). The discarded wife is to stay at home when an offering to Nirr.ti is made. MS (2.6.5; 4.3.8) provides a variant list: purohita, ra_jan, mahis.i_, parivr.kti_, sena_ni_, sam.grahi_tr., ks.attr., su_ta, vais'yagra_man.i_, bha_gadugha, taks.a-rathaka_rau (carpenter and chariot-maker), aks.a_va_pa, and go-vikarta. KS (15.4) substitutes go-vyacha for go-vikarta, and omits taks.a-rathaka_rau.
VS (30.13) and TBr. (1.5.9.5) refer to vira-hatya_ (manslaughter). Tart. (10.40) refers to vi_ra-hatya_ (murder of a man) as a crime; vi_ra-han (man-slayer) is mentioned in: TS (1.5.2.1; 2.2.3.5); KS (31.7); Kapis.t.hala Sam.hita) (37.7); MS (4.1.9); TBr. (3.2.8.1); VS (30.5); PBr. (12.6.8; 16.1, 12). R.gveda (2.32.4) prescribes a compensation for killing: a hundred (cows) - s'ata-da_ya - i.e. one whose compensation is a hundred. Yajurveda Sam.hita_ (11.1) also refers to s'ata-da_ya. AitBr. (7.15.7) refers to the compensation of a hundred (cows) for S'unahs'epa. KS (31.7), VS (30.5) refer to the slaying of a man (vi_ra) as a crime. Vasis.t.ha Dharma Su_tra (3.15-18) elaborates on cases of justiciable homicide. Vaira and Vaira-deya refer to the money to be paid for killing a man as a compensation to his relatives. (Pan~cavim.s'a Br. 16.1.12; TS 1.5.2.1; KS 9.2; Kapis.t.hala Sam.hita_ 8.5; MS 1.7.5) RV 5.61.8 uses the term vaira-deya. (cf. KS 23.8; 28.2.3.6). A_pastambha Su_tra (1.9.24.1-4) and Baudha_yana Su_tra (1.10.19.1,2) refer to vaira-deya and prescribe the scale of 1,000 cows for a ks.atriya, 100 for a vais'ya, 10 for a s'u_dra; and in each case, a bull is also to be paid as compensation. Killing of a bra_hman.a is too heinous for a compensation. The compensation is for the purpose of vaira-ya_tana (requital of enmity) or vaira-nirya_tana (expiation). Baudha_yana indicates that the compensation is to be paid to the king. A_pastamba Su_tra (1.9.24.5) prescribes the same scale for women.
The heir is a da_ya_da (S'Br. 12.4.3.9; Nirukta 3.4; AV 5.18.6.14), a receiver of inheritance. Da_ya means a reward of exertion (s'rama) in the R.gveda (RV 10.114.10); the word is semantically expanded, in later times, to mean, ‘inheritance' - division among the sons of a father's property either during the latter's lifetime or after his death. Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ (3.1.9.4) refers to Manu's division of his property. One son Na_bha_nedis.t.ha was excluded, the exclusion was compensated by the son obtaining cattle (pas'avah), a clear indication that cattle was the foundation of wealth. Aitareya Bra_hman.a (5.14) elaborates that the division was made by Manu's sons, during his lifetime, while leaving their aged father to Na_bhanedis.t.ha. Jaimini_ya Bra_hman.a (3.156) notes that four sons divided the inheritance while their old father, Abhiprata_rin, was still alive. Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ (2.5.2.7) notes that the elder son was usually preferred, in the method of division of land as property. Pan~cavims'a Bra_hman.a (31.2) indicates that during the father's life-time, another son, other than the eldest son, might be preferred. S'Br (16.4.4) and Nirukta (4.4.2.13) excluded women from partition or inheritance. The detailed procedures and rules of inheritance are stipulated in the Su_tras (Acf. Jolly, Recht und Sitte, 80 et seq)
The system of the vaira (compensation) which is to be paid to the king (as stipulated in the Su_tra-s) may be interpreted as an indication that criminal justice moved into the jurisdiction of royal power from the hands of the people who were wronged. S'Br. notes that the king wields the dan.d.a, i.e. punishment.
Equality before Law
The concept is traced to the R.gveda and Atharvaveda.
ajyes.t.ha_so akanis.t.ha_sa ete sam bha_rataro va_vr.dhuh saubhaga_ya
RV 5.60.5 No one is superior or inferior. All are brothers. All should strive for the interest of all and should progress collectively.
sama_ni_ prapa_ saha tonnabha_gah
sama_ne yovate saha vo yunajmi
ara_h na_bhimiva_bhitah
AV Samjn~a_na su_kta: All have equal rights to articles of food and water. The yoke of the chariot of life is placed equally on the shoulders of all. All should live together in harmony supporting one another like the spokes of a wheel of the chariot connecting its rim and the hub.
The king himself is not above the law when a crime is committed by the king. Vr.s'a ja_na (descendant of Jana) was a purohita who was with his king Tryarun.a. The purohita saw a boy killed by the chariot driven fast by the king. The purohita reproached the king and recalled the by to life. (PBr. 13.3.12) Br.haddevata_ (5.23) refers to Bha_llavi Bra_hman.a which also narrates this story. Iks.va_kus are reported to have decided that the action of the king was sinful, and required expiation. (Sieg, Die Sagenstoffe des R.gveda, 66, 67) Ka_t.haka Sam.hita_ (27.4) notes that a ra_janya is adhyaks.a when a su'u_dra is punished (han); this indicates that the judicial duties related to criminal justice were administered by king's assessors.
The ideal of ra_jadharma is explained in the Great Epic (S'a_ntiparva, verse 3 (1), Ch. 90:
dharma_ya ra_ja_ bhavati na ka_makarana_ya tu
The proper function of the king is to rule according to Dharma (the law) and not to enjoy the luxuries of life.
This is elucidated further by Manu:
yatha_ sarva_n.i bhu_ta_ni dhara_ dha_rayate samam tatha sarva_n.i bhu_ta_ni vibhratah pa_rthiva vratam (9.31)
Just as the mother earth gives equal support to all the living beings, a king should give support to all without any discrimination.
Na_rada Smr.ti clarifies (cf. Dharmakos'a p.870):
pa_s.an.danaigamas'ren.i_pu_gavra_tagan.a_dis.u samraks.etsamayam ra_ja_ durge janapade tatha_
The king should afford protection to compacts of associations of believers of Veda -- naigamas -- as also of disbelievers in Veda -- pa_s.an.d.is and of others.
Civil Law
R.gveda uses the terms urvara_ and ks.etra. (urvara_: RV 1.127.6; 4.41.6; 5.33.5; 6.25.4; 10.30.3; 142.3; AV 10.6.33; 10.8; 14.2.14; ks.etra: RV 10.33.6; 3.31.15; 5.60.7).
Urvara_ is a piece of ploughland. Fertile fields (apnasvati_: RV 1.127.6) and waste fields (a_rtana_: RV 1.127.6) are referred to. The fields are cultivated using irrigation. (RV 7.49.2; AV 1.6.4; 19.2.2) Use of manure on fields is alluded to. (AV 3.14.3.4; 19.31.3) urvara_-sa_, urvara_-jit, are epithets [like ks.etra-sa_ in RV 4.38.1] meaning ‘winning fields' (RV 6.20.1; 2.22.1; 4.38.1). RV 4.41.6 refers to fields in the same connection as children, indicating acquisition of fields by conquest or transfers. urvara_-pati is lord of fields used of a god (RV 8.21.3). It is noted that ploughland was bounded by grass land (khila, khilya) (Pischel, Vedische Studien, 2, 204-207).
ks.etra is cultivated land (RV 1.100.18; 9.85.4; 91.6), is carefully measured off (RV 1.110.5); is carefully marked (AV 4.18.5; 5.31.4; 10.1.18; 11.1.22; TS 2.2.1.2; ChUp. 7.24.2) and also refers to a place in general (RV 5.2.3; 45.9; 6.47.20). Ks.etra-jes.a is acquisition of land (RV 1.33.15); ks.etra_-sa_ is gaining land (RV 4.38.1); ks.etram-jaya is conquering cultivated land (MS 2.2.11). Ks.etrasya pati is lord of the field (RV 4.37.1, 2; 7.35.10; 10.66.13; AV 2.8.5); ks.etrasya patni_ is mistress of the field (AV 2.12.1); ks.etra_n.a_m patih is lord of fields (VS 16.18). Conquest of fields is referred to as ks.etra_n.i sam.ji (TS 3.2.8.5; KS 5.2; MS 4.12.3).
S'Br. 7.1.1.8 refers to a ks.atriya, who with the consent of the people, gives a settlement to a man, i.e., assigns to him a particular ks.etra for his own, probably measured out and recorded as in RV 1.110.5. These references indicate that the concept of separate holdings, perhaps individual ownership in land, is as old as the R.gveda. This is confirmed by Apa_la_ referring to her father's field (urvara_) on the same level as his head of hair as a personal possession (RV 8.91.5). ChUp (7.24.2) includes fields and houses (a_yatana_ni) as examples of wealth.
Taittiri_ya Sam.hita_ (2.1.1.2; 3.2; 3.9.2), Maitra_yan.i_ Sam.hita_ (2.1.9; 2.3; 4.2.7) refer to gra_ma-ka_ma (desirous of a village); this may be a reference to the desire of people to obtain from the king a grant of royal prerogatives over villages, perhaps in fiscal matters. While a ks.atriya possesses, with the consent of the clan, the right to apportion land (S'Br. 7.1.1.8), the grand of villages to landlords is a common practice in the days after the later sam.hita_s.
The recognized modes of transfer of chattels are da_na (gift) and kraya (barter or sale). The Su_tras (Gautama Dharma Su_tra 10.36 et seq.) have rules for the disposal of lost property (given to the kind).
Va_jasneyi Sam.hita_ (30) and Taittiri_ya Br. (3.4) refer to fixed allowances paid to technical workers of the village.
Note:
1. No animal may be slaughtered for sacrifice.
2. Tribal feasts in high places are not to be celebrated.
3. Docility to parents is good.
4. Liberality to friends, acquaintances and relatives, and to Brahmins and recluses is good.
5. Not to injure living beings is good.
6. Economy in expenditure, and avoiding disputes, is good.
7. Self-mastery, 8. Purity of heart, 9. Gratitude, 10. Fidelity, are always possible and excellent even for the man who is too poor to be able to give largely
11. People perform rites or ceremonies for luck on occasion of sickness, weddings, childbirth, or on starting on a journey -- corrupt and worthless ceremonies. Now there is a lucky ceremony that may be performed -- not worthless like those, but full of fruit, -- the lucky ceremony of the Dhamma. And therein is included right conduct towards slaves and servants, honour towards teachers, self-restraint towards living things, liberality to brahmins and recluses. These things, and others such as these, are the lucky ceremony according to the Dhamma. Therefore should one -- whether father or son or brother or master -- interfere and say: "So is right. Thus should the ceremony be done to lasting profit. People say liberality is good. But no gift, no aid is so good as giving to others the gift of the Dhamma, as aiding others to gain the Dhamma."
12. Toleration. Honour should be paid to all, laymen and recluses alike, belonging to other sects. No one should disparage other sects to exalt his own. Self-restraint in words is the right thing. And let a man seek rather after the growth in his own sect of the essence of the matter.
13. The Dhamma is good. But what is the Dhamma? The having but little, in one's own mind, of the Intoxications; doing many benefits to others; compassion; liberality; truth; purity.
14. Man sees but his good deeds, saying: "This good act I have done." Man sees not all his evil deeds, saying: "Thus had not have I done, that act is corruption." Such self-examination is hard. Yet must a man watch over himself, saying: "Such and such acts lead to corruption, -- such as brutality, cruelty, anger, and pride. I will zealously see to it that I slander not out of envy. That will be to my advantage in the world, to my advantage, verily, in the world to come."
Dharma-dravya in Sanatana Dharma-Jaina Dharma continuum of thought
Sanatana Dharma calls it Dharma; Jaina Dharma calls it Dharma-dravya. An ordering is recognized as a principle of motion.
Four material substances identified in Jaina thought are: a_ka_s'a (space), ka_la (change, time), dharma-dravya (motion) and adharma-dravya (rest). These material substances plus ji_va (life, aatman) and pudgala (whatever is perceived by senses, aji_va, non-living) constitute the universe. Such a universe is an eternal category of being (astikaya).
Why is there a reference to dharma-dravya and adharma-dravya to explain action in time and space - action connoted by motion and by rest?
If dravya is substance, dharma-dravya is explained as principle of motion. The compound, dravya-naya 'substantial point of view' explains that dravya means 'substance'. In the context of a yajna, dravya connotes 'substance used in yajna'; dravya-yajna means 'yajna involving substances'.
What does Dharma mean in this compound dharma-dravya (dharma as dravya)?
To unravel the semantics, we can also look at other compounds: dharma-la_bha 'increase in righteousness'; dharma-svakhyatatva 'true teachings of jina'; dharma-tirtha 'holy path'; dharma-dhyana 'virtuous concentration'. Dharma is a virtue and in a unique semantic expansion unique to Jaina thought, Dharma is also an 'eternal substance'. It is a dravya because it is a medium which allows other substances to move.
In the six dravya identified: a_ka_s'a, ka_la, dharma, adharma, ji_va and pudgala, three substances - dravya -- are manifold: they are, ka_la, ji_va, pudgala; three substances -dravya --are unique and singular: a_ka_s'a, dharma, adharma, A_ka_s'a, is what contains the remaining dravya. Ka_la, is what modifies or changes the remaining dravya.
Thus, Dharma is a dravya, it is principle of motion. Adharma is a dravya, it is principle of rest. Examples are provided to explain the terms: water is a necessary condition for fish to move; similarly, Dharma is a necessary condition for the motion of ji_va and pudgala. Hence, dharma is called dharma-dravya. Earth is a necessary condition for rest; similarly adharma is a necessary condition for rest of substances in motion. Hence, adharma is called adharma-dravya.
Thus, dharma is explained as a condition, an ordering principle which explains 'motion', that is, action. Thus, it is, that dharma becomes the most active ordering principle of the universe. Dharma is realised in performance, and hence, the relationship to concept of responsibility. Dharma-vrata is discharge of a responsibility related to a specific function or vow; dharma vrata is a vrata to uphold dharma.
Treating a_ka_s'a and ka_la as modern equivalents of space-time in Physics, a_ka_s'a-ka_la tell other substances on how to move, achieve motion (dharma) or rest (adharma).
Dharma-dravya and adharma-dravya explain motion and rest. Dharma is the ordering principle, the principle which explains all motion and hence is the principle of motion. Dharma according to Jaina thought can be realized only in motion, in action.
This thought is central to the thoughts expressed in the Rigveda, thought elaborated as Sanatana Dharma. Dharma is the principle which explains the very organization of the universe in motion. This eternal organizing principle, a dravya which is the principle and medium of motion, all action, is Sanatana Dharma.
It will be an error to translate Dharma as ‘Religion' using the connotation related to revelations of Christism or Islamism. Dharma is NOT Religion. Dharma is an eternal, inviolate ordering principle of the universe. This principle of motion cannot be confined to the narrow lanes and by-lanes of ‘Religion'. Dharma is a dravya which is the principle of motion in the eternal category of the being called the universe (astikaya): this is the semantic elaboration offered by Jaina thought of the term Sanatana Dharma.
This dharma has to be the principle of governance (rajadharma), of virtuous action (dharma-vrata), a_s'ramadharma (responsibility related to stages of life), of jaati-janajaati morality (kula-dharma) and so on in a social living in inexorable motion.
Ramarajyam needs a Dharma Constitution
A nation is a cultural identity. A state is a device for administering polity. Sanatana Dharma which is Nationalism should govern the devices of polity, the apparatus for conducting the affairs of the state.
Ramarajyam as Dharmarajyam needs a Dharma Constitution to govern the affairs of the polity.
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, who was widely believed to have been a non-religious and scientific type - an avowed agnostic- wrote in the introduction to a book (Socialism in Indian Planning, written by a Member of Parliament Srimannarayan Agarwal): "In India it is important for us to profit by modern technical processes and increase our production in agriculture and industry. But, in doing so, we must not forget that the essential objective to be aimed at is the quality of the individual and the concept of Dharma underlying it." [loc. cit. AV Srinivasan at http://www.avsrinivasan.com/epics/dharma.html] Talk of devil quoting scriptures!
The first book of Tirukkural of Tiruvalluvar in Tamil is called aram, dharma'; the second is porul. ‘wealth'; and the third is inbam ‘joy'; the three-fold division is consistent with the purushartha trivarga: dharma artha ka_ma (duties, wealth, joy). Illaram means ‘householder's dharma' and is explained in 20 chapters of the first book on aram, ‘dharma'. A compound such as cid-dharma is interpreted as ‘transcendental nature', so is ma_nava dharma ‘human nature', giving the word dharma a comprehensive elucidation as ‘natural order'. Rishi Kanada in Vais'es'ika sutra notes a definition of dharma by its beneficial impact, focusing on discharge of one's responsibility: "That which leads to the attainment of Abhyudaya (prosperity in this world) and Nihsreyasa (total cessation of pain and attainment of eternal bliss hereafter) is Dharma".
Bhishma explained to Yudhishthira: "It is very difficult to define the Dharma. Dharma was explained as that which helps the elevation of the human. This is the reason; this that assures well-being is assuredly Dharma. The learned rishis declared: this that supports is Dharma."
Like satyam, dharma was explained with reference to the beneficial effect it generates: well-being and progress of humanity. "Dharma is this that supports and that assures the progress and the well-being of all in this world and the eternal happiness in the other world. Dharma is promulgated in the form of orders (positive and negative: Vidhi and Nishedha)." This was the elucidaton of Madhvacharya in his commentary on Parasarasmruti. This rendering of the semantics of Dharma explains why Dharma covered all aspects of life for the well-being of the individual and also the samajam.
Dharma unites. Religion and its obverse secular divide. Religion is a restrictive canvas related to modes of worship of a divinity called by a variety of names. Religion and its obverse secular are restrictive in relating to parts of society. Dharma is all-encompassing and resolves conflicts. Religion and secular foment conflicts. "The word ‘Hindu' was first used by the Muslim invaders of the middle ages to describe the inhabitants of the valley of the sand dunes. But the culture that we know now as Hindouisme and that the Indian ones call Sanatana Dharma - the Law Eternal - precedes this name by thousands of years. This is more than a religion, more than the theological direction in which the west understands religion. One can believe in all divinities or in no divinity and remain Hindu. This is a manner to living." (Kerry Brown, The Essential Teachings of the hindouisme; loc. cit. Rama Jois, Dharmarajya or true government according to dharma http://pages.intnet.mu/ramsurat/Textesdivers/dharmarajya.html)
Within this all-enveloping framework, dharma as applied to governance, called rajadharma is explained as the facilitation of individuals of the samajam attaining the purushartha of dharma, artha and kaama without transgressing dharma, the ethical principles of conduct and inter-personal relationships. This is affirmed by Barhaspatya sutra, II-43-44: "The goal of rajaniti (polity) is the accomplishment of dharma, artha, kaama. Artha and kaama must be subject to the test of dharma. Dharma was supreme law of the state and rulers and subjects alike were subservient to this law. Dharma is the constitutional law of modern parlance, explaining the contours of the functions and responsibilities of the state, constraining the ruler by regulations which restrain the exercise of sovereignty by the ruler - a parallel to the paradigm of checks and balances enshrined in modern constitutions to prevent abuse of power while ensuring equal protection to the subjects without discrimination. "Just as the mother Earth gives an equal support to all the living being, a king must give support to all without discrimination." (Manusmruti) "The king must furnish protection to associations following ordinances of the Veda (Naigamas) which protection should extend to all - those non-believers (paashandi) and to others as well." (Naradasmruti, Dharmakos'a, p. 870)
The absence of discrimination, provisions to check abuse of power and enjoining the state to promote the individual's and samajam's activities for the attainment of purushartha [achieving the goals of life -- of dharma (righteous conduct), of artha (economic well-being) and of kaama (mental well-being)] are the key facets of rajadharma. Such a rajadharma is beyond secular and is a sacred trust to be administered with diligence and commitment.
Such a rajadharma is exemplified by ramarajyam which is evoked by many rulers of Bharatam in many parts of the nation in their references to Sri Ramachandra as the ideal ruler whose example the rulers hoped to emulate in rendering social justice and in regulating the affairs of the state. Ramarajyam is a dharma polity, governed by a dharma constitution. This is the reason why Valmiki refers to Rama in eloquent terms: Ramo vigrahavan dharmah. (Rama is the very embodiment of dharma).
The two great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata and the Bhagavata Purana explain dharma in action, the application of the ‘ordering principles' in specific real-life situations, in moments of creative tension such as when a proponent like Arjuna had to decide to fight against his own kith and kin, members of his own kula. This moment of decision results in the delineation of the Dharmakshetra (the domain of dharma) in that Song Celestial, Bhagavad Gita. An enduring metaphor of the Bhagavatam is samudramanthanam: deva and asura apparently in conflict work together to harness the resources of the ocean by churning the ocean together. This togetherness to achieve artha and kaama is a dharmic cooperative endeavour, an example of a samajam in harmony, pulling together for a common purpose - that purpose is loka hitam, ‘well-being of loka'. Loka hitam is the touchstone which determines the dharmic nature of positive action. Just as satyam is truth that is pleasing, dharma is action which is loka-hitaaya ‘for the well-being of the society'. How should such action be performed or such responsibility be discharged? Governed by ethical conduct;, a social ethic which respects the responsibilities being discharged by everyone in society.
Vrata, like Dharma, is Inviolate
The centrality of the yajn~a and vrata (‘vow') is the dominant phase in the evolution of the tenets of Dharma. Vrata, like dharma, is inviolate, says Rigveda:
vratena stho dhruvaks.ema_ dharman.a_ ya_tayajjana_
ni barhis.i sadatam somapi_taye 5.072.02
Steady are you (Mitra and Varun.a) in your functions, whom men animate by (their) devotion; come and sit down upon the sacred grass to drink the Soma libation.
Vrata like dharma is inviolate and cannot be broken by deva or asura
This phase absorbed thoughts related to two fundamental precepts, r.ta and rin.a. The locus of Dharma is delineated in the cosmic context (r.ta) and the focus of continuity in tradition is exemplified by the social memory of the debt (r.n.a) owed to the pitr.-s, the ancestors and the repayment of debt owed to society by every individual as a social being.
The precepts of r.ta and r.n.a are also fundamental to the next phase in the evolution of philosophical thought. Philosophical speculations, beyond r.ta and r.n.a, are recorded in the A_ran.yaka-s and Upanis.ad-s, in the continuum of the Vedic corpus of texts. Philosophical thought expands into a doctrine of transmigration of souls. Philosophical thought of the Upanis.ad-s is complemented by the practice of asceticism. This practice of asceticism flowers into the traditions (ca. 6th to 4th centuries BCE) of the Buddha, the Jaina and A_ji_vika. The heterodox forms of asceticism are a continuum, derived from the early orthodox forms of asceticism exemplified by the persons sitting in yogic postures on epigraphs of Sarasvati Civilization[1].
Vrata
The term, ‘vrata'occurs in the R.gveda about 220 times and seems to connote (1) deeds or functions of divinities and (2) divine ordinances about conduct or vows to be fulfilled, in community living. Semantically, it gets elaborated in Samskr.tam tradition as steadfast determination, and disciplined living.
indra r.bhuma_n va_java_n matsveha no smin savane s'acya_ purus.t.uta
ima_ni tubhyam svasara_n.i yemire vrata_ deva_na_m manus.as' ca dharmabhih
RV3.060.06 Indra, the praised of many, associated with R.bhu, and with Va_ja, exult with S'aci, at this our sacrifice; these self-revolving (days) are devoted to you, as well as the ceremonies (addressed) to the gods, and the virtuous acts of man. [S'aci = karman, act, rite]. [r.s.i: vis'va_mitra ga_thina; devata_; 5, 6 r.bhugan.a and indra]
dharman.a_ mitra_varun.a_ vipas'cita_ vrata_ raks.ethe asurasya ma_yaya_
r.tena vis'vam bhuvanam vi ra_jathah su_ryam a_ dhattho divi citryam ratham
RV5.063.07 Discerning, sagacious, Mitra and Varun.a, by your office you protect pious rites, through the power of the emitter of showers; you illumine the whole world with water; you sustain the sun, the adorable chariot in the sky. [r.s.i: arcana_na_ a_treya; devata_: mitra_varun.a]
Manu elucidates vratam in the context of a king's duties: (9.31):
yatha_ sarva_n.i bhu_ta_ni dhara_ dha_rayate samam tatha sarva_n.i bhu_ta_ni vibhratah pa_rthiva vratam
Just as the mother earth gives equal support to all the living beings, a king should give support to all without any discrimination.
Vrata, artisan-guild-settlements of Sarasvati Civilization
The lexeme, ‘vrata' can also be interpreted in the context of settlements of artisan-guild communities. ‘Vrata' is used as a generic designation for ‘people' and with particular reference to ‘guilds' as in the use of the word, ‘nigama' linked with ‘gra_ma'. It may be postulated as a hypothesis that the term, ‘vrata' connoted the set of settlements which were fortified and where the a_yudha-ji_vi and armourers lived in a harmya, where the fire-places abounded to smelt mineral ore; the later-day association of ‘vrata' with ‘ma_gadha' also re-inforces this link with people engaged in metallurgical activities since magadha was close to the mineral-rich region in Bihar where the people migrated after the desiccation of the River Sarasvati:
Vrata N. of one of the seven islands of Antara-dvipa); cf. also AV. v, 1, 7 A_pS'r.S xiii, 16, 8; N. of a son of Manu and Nad.vala BhP.; (pl.) N. of a country belonging to Pra_cya; mfn. = {e.g., veda-vrata}, one who has taken the vow of learning the Veda Gr.S. ii, 3 (Sch.) vra_ta = a multitude, flock, assemblage, troop, swarm, group, host, in companies or troops; {cf. pan~cavra_ta-s}, the five groups of men), association, guild RV; the company or attendants at a marriage feast W; = {manus.ya} Naigh. ii, 3; the descendant of an out-caste Brahman &c. (= {vra_tya}); n. manual or bodily labour, day-labour ib. [cf. Online Cologne Sanskrit Lexicon].
Thus, the lexeme, 'vrata' might have connoted a group of houses lived in by 'vra_tya' or chariot-makers, carpenters and other artisans. The parallel with the nature of the settlements in the Sa rasvati Sindhu civilization archaeological settlements is striking and will have to be investigated further in the context of repeated references by archaeologists of many settlements as ‘citadels', and ‘fortified settlements'. The massive brick-walls which make up the fortifications in many settlements have to be explained in the context also of the nature of the ‘forts' built-up during historical periods in the Sindhu-Sarasvati River Basins.
It is likely that, as the inscribed objects get interpreted firmly as conveying lists of bronze-age weapons, arms and armour as property items and as bills of lading prepared by armourers, these parallels between the Vedic culture and the Civilization area will unravel further as armed camps and armouries.
A_s'ubhis' cid ya_n vi muca_ti nu_nam ari_ramad atama_nam cid etoh
Ahyars.u_n.a_m cin ny aya_avis.ya_m anu vratam savitur moky a_ga_t (2.038.03)
The moving (Sun) is liberated by his rapid rays; verily he has stopped the traveller from his journey; he restraisn the desire of warriors for combat, for night follows (the cessation of) the function of Savita_. [The traveller from his journey: or, literally, the goer, from going]
Tvaya_ hitam apyam apsu bha_gam dhanva_nv a_ mr.gayaso vi tasthuh
Vana_ni vibhyo nakir asya ta_ni vrata_ devasya savitur minanti (2.038.07)
The animals search in dry places for the water element which has been collected in the firmament by you; the woods are assigned (by you) to the birds; no one obstructs these functions of the divine Savita_.
Kim svin no ra_ja_ jagahe kad asya_ti vratam cakr.ma_ ko vi veda
mitras' cid dhi s.ma_ juhura_n.o deva_n~ chloko na ya_ta_mapi va_jo asti (10.012.05)
But will the royal Agni accept our oblation? Have we duly performed our vows to him? Who decides? As a friend affectionately invited, so let our praise now proceed to the gods; together with the sacrificial food that is left over.
na deva_na_m ati vratam s'ata_tma_ cana ji_vati
tatha_ yuja_ vi va_vr.te (10.033.09)
No one lives hundred years passing the limit fixed by the gods; so he is separated from his friends. [Hundred years: No one, even if he has a hundred lives, can live beyond the limit fixed].
Tvam hi nas tanvah soma gopa_ ga_trebhaga_tre nis.asattha_ nr.caks.a_h
Yat te vayam pramina_ma vrata_ni sa no mr.l.a sus.akha_ deva vasyah (8.048.09)
O Soma, you are the guardian of our bodies, you dwell in each limb as the beholder of man; though we impair your rites, yet, divine one, bless us, you who are possessed of most excellent food and good friends. Vrata is steady and compares with Dharma, the inviolate obligation of all peoples for righteous conduct.
yac cid dhi te vis'o yatha_ pra deva varun.a vratam
mini_masi dyavibhadyavi (1.025.01)
Inasmuch as all people commit errors, so do we, divine Varun.a, daily disfigure your worship by imperfections.
vratena stho dhruvaks.ema_ dharman.a_ ya_tayajjana_
ni barhis.i sadatam somapi_taye (5.072.02)
Steady are you (Mitra and Varun.a) in your functions, whom men animate by (their) devotion; come and sit down upon the sacred grass to drink the Soma libation. Vrata like dharma is inviolate and cannot be broken by deva or asura:
na yasyendro varun.o na mitro vratam aryama_ na minanti rudrah
na_ra_tayas tam idam svasti huve devam savita_ram namobhih (2.038.09)
I invite to this place, with reverential salutations, for my good, that divine Savita_, whose functions neither Indra, nor Varun.a, nor Mitra nor Aryaman nor Rudra nor the enemies (of the gods), impede.
The term ‘vrata' gets modified into: vra_ti, vra_ta, vra_tya with specific meanings as may be seen from the following examples from the R.gveda:
Vra_ti
Vra_ti means a horde or settlement and a vrata is explained as a roving band. In AV 2.9.1, the term vra_tya is interpreted as equivalent to troops. PB 17.1.5.12 uses the term; prava_sa which may mean a sojourn, thus vra_tya may be those who led the life of a sojourned horde. In RV 1.163.8; 3.26.2; 5.53.11, the troops of the Maruta are referrd to as s'ardha, vra_ta and gan.a. Yajurveda and Ta_n.d.ya Bra_hman.a refer to Rudra as vra_tapati and gan.apati (VS 30.8; TB 3.4.5.1). Su_tra texts refer to vra_tya as arhanta (saints) or yaudha (warriors). Roth opines that vra_ta may connote a guild (cf. St. Petersburg Dictionary; Pan~cavims'a Bra_hman.a 6.9.25; 17.15.12; VS 16.25; TS 1.8.10.2).
Anu tva_ ratho anu maryo arvann anu ga_vo nu bhagah kani_na_m
Anu vra_ta_sas tava sakhyam i_yur anu deva_ mamire vi_rya te (1.163.08)
The car follows you, O Horse; men attend you; cattle follow you; the loveliness of maidens (waits) upon you; troops of demi-gods following you have sought your friendship; the gods themselves have been admirers of your vigour [Loveliness of maidens: bhagah kani_na_m = kanya_na_m saubha_gyam or saundaryam].
s'ardhambhas'ardham va es.a_m vra_tabhavra_tam gan.ambhagan.am sus'astibhih
anu kromema dhi_tibhih (5.053.11)
Let us wait with sacred praises and holy rites, upon your several strength, and separate troop, and individual company.
tam s'ubhram agnim avase hava_mahe vais'va_naram ma_taris'va_nam ukthyam
br.haspatim manus.o devata_taye vipram s'rota_ram atithim raghus.yadam (3.026.02)
We invoke you for our own protection and for the devotions of mankind, the radiant Agni, Vais'va_nara, the illuminator of the firmament, the adorable lord of sacred rites, the wise, the hearer (of supplications), the guest (of man), the quick-moving. [The adorable lord of sacred rites: br.haspati, explained here: br.hato yajn~asya patim, the lord of the great sacrifice, tatpa_lakataya_ sva_minam, lord through protecting it]. (The reference is to the people of kus'ika).
Verajja_ni (according to the Jaina text A_ya_rangasutta, p. 83) or vaira_ja (AV 15.2.3: tam vairu_pam ca vaira_jam, a kingless constitution) was perhaps a democratic concept in vogue; vra_tyaka_n.d.a of Atharvaveda (AV 7.13: sabha_ ca samitis'ca_yata_m praja_pate rduhitaye samvidha_ne, samiti and sabha_ are two daughters, institutions, of Praja_pati) refers to an assembly, a gathering and sena_, the army.
Atharvaveda (15.1.1: vra_tya a_sa_ndi_yama_na eva sa praja_pati samairavat) notes the vra_tya as benefactors of human society or as one who does good to a large number of people. AV (15.10, 11) adds: ‘So let the king, to whose house the Vra_tya, who possesses the knowledge, comes as a guest, honour him as superior to himself. So he doth not act against the interests of his princely rank or his kingdom...Thence arose sanctity.' AV 15.12 enjoins that without the permission of the vra_tya, the bra_hman.a should not sacrifice.
Vra_ta
Vra_ta_ni is a term which occurs in RV 3.26.6 (cited below) and 5.53.11 (cited above) and vra_tyabhya_m is a term which occurs in AV 19.23.25. vra_ta is a san:gha living by violence, according to Pa_n.ini (Ka_s'ika: 5.3.113: utsetha ji_vinah san:gha_ vra_ta_h). Patan~jali endorses this by stating that vra_ta refers to san:gha. (5.2.21: vra_tena ji_vati ki vra_rtana_ma? na_na_ ja_ti_ya_ aniyatavr.ttaya utsedhaji_vinah san:gha_ vra_tah tes.a_m karma vra_tam, vra_takarman.a_ ji_vati_tivra_ti_nah. Weber notes that vra_ta means a troop and adds:
‘Vra_ta (troop), the chief of a band of wanderers of aryan extraction, but absolutely independent, free from fetters of Bra_hmanical hierarchy and not following the aryan way of life'. (Weber, Indische Studien, 1.25.15, 121-40).
Vra_ta is defined as san:gha_tmaka in RV 1.163.8; aviviks.itagan.a in RV 5.5.11; samu_ha in Gopatha Bra_hman.a 6.69.51. RV refers to the heroes as as vra_tasa_ha_h (RV 6.75.9; 10.34.12). Maha_bha_rata (Anus'a_sana Parva, line 2621) equates vra_tyas with can.d.a_la.
vra_tabhavra_tam gan.ambhagan.am sus'astibhir anger bha_mam maruta_m oja i_mahe pr.s.adas'va_so anavabhrara_dhaso ganta_ro yajnam vidathes.u dhi_ra_h (3.026.06)
We solicit the might of the Maruts, the irradiation of Agni with solemn prayers in every assembly and company (of worshippers); those Maruts who ahve partly-coloured steeds, who are dispensers of unfailing wealth, firm (of purpose), and frequenters of sacrifices.
6.075.09 The guards (of chariot), revelling in the savoury (spoil), distributors of food, protecors in calamity, armed with spears, resolute, beautifully arranged, strong in arrows, invincible, of heroic valour, robust, and conquerors of numerous hosts. [The guards of the chariot: pitarah is the only substanive: pa_layita_rah, guards, defenders, a body of spearmen, s'aktivantah: attendants on the war chariot of the chief].
Yo vah sena_ni_r mahato gan.asya ra_ja_ vra_tasya prathamo babhu_va
tasmai kr.n.omi na dhana_ run.a_dhmi das'a_ham pra_ci_s tad r.tam vada_mi
10.034.12 Dice, I offer salutation to him who has been the general of your great army, the chief lord of your host; I do not provide him with wealth; I raise my ten (fingers) to the east; that (which) I speak (is) the truth. [I do not provide him wealth: na dana_ run.adhmi = I do not withhold my wealth; na sampa_daya_mi].
Vra_tya
All Vedic people were vra_tya, derived from vra_ta, group. Patan~jali notes that vra_tya were part of a republican constitution. (Maha_bha_s.ya 5.2.21; cf. ra_janya janapadasa, an epithet, an equivalent of the ks.atriya: Cunningham, Coins of Ancient India, p. 69; VS Smith, Catalogue of the Coins in the India Museum, Vol. I, p. 164). The use of gan.ayajn~a indicates a commune for social organization. A.B. Keith notes: ‘That they (Vra_tyas) were non-aryan is not probable for it is expressly said that, though unconsecrated, they spoke the tongue of the consecrated; they were thus apparently aryans.' (Vedic Index, II; JRAS, 1913, p. 155; cf. Religion and Philosophy of the Vedas and Upanishads (Harvard Oriental Series), Vol. XXXI, p. 338)
Vra_tapati means, ‘lord of troops' (TS 4.5.4.1; Ka_t.haka Sam.hita_ 18.13; MS 2.9.4; VS 16.25) and is comparable with gan.apati, ‘lord of groups'. (cf. Vedic Index, II, p. 342) Pan~cavims'a Bra_hman.a (17.1.9: ‘they call what is easy of utterance, difficult to utter') expressly states that Vra_tyas spoke the tongue of the consecrated, thus making them Vedic people as much as those who perform yajn~a-s. The su_tra-s refer to their arhants (‘saints') and yaudhas (‘warriors') comparable to the bra_hman.a and ks.atriya (cf. Vedic Index, II, p. 343)
The principal source for the tradition of the vra_tya is Atharvaveda vra_tyaka_n.d.a (AV 15). Brahma_n.d.apura_n.a (Madhyabha_ga: 63.138 ff. Recounting events related to Sagara's conquest, s'aka, pahalava, yavana, kamboja, parada, ma_hisika, darava, chola, khas'a are stated to have approached Vasis.t.ha) notes that Vas'is.t.ha rescued these people by turning them in vra_tya.
Kaus'i_taki A_ran.yaka (7.13) connects Magadha with the vra_tya (AV 15.2.14). The legend of Pr.thu-Vain.ya (VP 62. 138-139) Su_ta and Ma_gadha are related to the dynasty of Pr.thu, the first monarch. Ma_gadha were the bards and minstrels. Su_ta sustained the king at the eka_ha-sattra (PB 19.1.4) and one of the eleven ratnin at the ra_jasu_ya ceremony. (S'B 5.3.1.5). Su_ta was a soldier, chariot driver and a healer. Sa_yan.a commenting upon RV 10.34.12 (cited earlier) notes that the terms gan.a and vra_ta may be synonyms, connoting collective life of peoples: gan.a had sena_ni and vra_ta had ra_ja-prathama. Jaimini_ya Bra_hman.a (2.26) notes that for the vra_tyastoma of ais.ikapa_va-s, Kaus'i_taki (the author of the Kaus'i_taki Bra_hman.a of the R.gveda) was the gr.hapati. Ka_tya_yana S'rauta Su_tra (Ka_s'i edn: 22.4: cartva_ro vra_tyastoma_ gan.ayajn~a_h) endorses the concordance between vra_ta and gan.a by referring to the vra_tyastoma as gan.ayajn~a and enjoins a gr.hapati for each of the four kinds of vra_tyastoma. Agrawal notes that the leader of vra_tya was perhaps called a gra_man.i_ (VS Agrawal, 1953, India as known to Pa_n.ini, p. 440).
Vra_tyastoma
Sama Veda which describes Vratyastoma (a particular sacrifice or ritual) by which Vratyas who differ in speech and did not strictly follow the rules of yajn~a, were admitted to the rigours of performing yajn~a.
Vra_tyastoma was perhaps a procedure to absorb new groups into the commune. The vra_tya wore nis.ka, silver ornament, around the neck (PB 17.1.14)
The leader of vra_tya wore nis.ka of silver. (PB 17.1.15) The nis.ka made of silver and of gold have been found in Lothal and in Kunal. The nis.ka is also referred to in the R.gveda (RV 5.19.3) and AV (5.17.4). They wore dress made of the hairy skin of a black antelope, upa_nah (pointed sandal) made of doubly-joined goat hide, us.nis.a (turban), carried a pratoda (whip or goad) and jya_hrod.a (a small bow and three arrows in a leather quiver), rode in vipatha (cart) with bamboo-sticks, without a canopy and drawn by horses and mules (KSS: 22.4.1: phalaka_sti_rn.ovipathah, a board-covered rough vehicle; KSS 22.4.16: as'va_s'vatara_bhya_m kanya_bhya_m yuktah sva_dityeke).
Vra_tyastoma is described in Ta_n.d.ya Maha_ Bra_hman.a and elaborated in Pan~cavims'a Bra_hman.a [PB 17.1.9: "They differed from Tr.tsu-Bharata-s in not being Bra_hmanical in culture and in differing in speech (adurukta)". PB 17.4.3 notes that Kaus'i_taka, son of S'amasravah, was a Gr.hapati of the Vra_tya. Sa_yan.a notes that Kaus'i_taka was the r.s.i of a s'a_kha of R.gveda]. PB 24.18 refers to sixty-one day rites and cites one Buddha Sauna_yana as the stha_pati of Daiva Vra_tya. Stha_pati may refer to a yajama_na (gr.hapati), a chief or king. Gr.hapati-s may be leaders of many vra_tya groups. PB 17.1.17 states that each vra_tya brought to the leader thirty three cows since they were allowed to prosper by their leader. Ukthya in agnis.t.oma may refer to uktha, land or cattle. Thus, using cattle, the leader leads the vra_tya to prosperity. The ceremony of gava_mayana sattra included the Maha_vrata on the last but one day, a day called udayani_ya (Yajurveda: TS 7.5.9.10; KS 34.S; Ta_n.d.ya Bra_hman.a 1.2.6; Ta_n.d.ya Maha_ Bra_hman.a 5.5.6; Taittiri_ya A_ran.yaka, Kaus.i_taki_ and S'a_nkha_yana A_ran.yaka 1.5; 1.2). The Maha_vrata is performed as an eka_ha or as ahi_na (performed on the tenth day of the Pun.d.ari_ka). A beast is sacrificed to Indra and Agni analogous to agnis.t.oma. A pot- full of Soma is dedicated to Praja_pati accompanied by recitation of Maha_vrata Sa_man; a beast is offered with the recitation of Mahaduktha. Aitareya A_ran.yaka (indro vai vr.tram hatva_ maha_nabhavat tadyayan maha_nabhavat tanmaha_vratasya maha_vratatvam: 1.2) extols the greatness of Indra as the cause for Maha_vrata. Maha_vrata sa_man (Pr.s.t.ha stotra accompanied by a lute with thousand strings made of mun~ja grass) and Mahaduktha (Nis.kaivalya S'astra) are symbolised as a bird (eagle or Suparn.a Garutman) with outstretched wings. S'atapatha Bra_hman.a refers to such an altar or vedi (S'B 9.1.2.35). Sa_yan.a offers a number of interpretations for maha_vrata: maha_n bhavati anena (he becomes great by means of this), mahato devasya vratam (ritual to propitiate the great God), mahat ca tad vratam (the great ritual) (TB 1.2.6.1; Ab 3.21.1; S'B 10.4.1.4)
As the Pr.s.t.ha stotra is recited (with wives of priests simply humming in accompaniment: JB 10.4.8; S'a_tya_s.a_d.ha S'S 16.6.21; A_p. S'S 27.17.15.16), udga_ta_ sits on a wooden seat; hotar sits on a swing; adhvaryu sits on a plank; other priests sit on grass seats. (TMB 5.5); a Brahman praises from the front door of the sabha_gr.ha and a s'u_dra abuses from the backdoor (TMB 5.5.13). A_gnidhra is the priest; to the west of his cottage, an a_rya and a da_sa race and fight for a piece of leather resembling the sun. The a_rya becomes victorious (TMB 5.5.15; 17; S'B 16.7.28.32). To the north of the vedi, a brahmaca_rin and a woman of loose character abuse each other (sam.prava_da). To the south of ma_rjali_ya cottage, a couple not engaged in ritual, cohabits (KS'S 13.3.9). To the right of the vedi is a chariot on which sits a warrior youth clad in armour and equipped with weapons; he carries a bow and three arrows in his hand; he shoots them at a piece of leather of cow (vas'a) but does not tear it away (S'a_n:kha_yana S'rauta Su_tra 17.14) Drums are placed on four corners of the vedi and are sounded. In A_gnidhra's cottage and outside, to the west of the vedi, the hide of a bull is spread out and beaten (the earth-drum ritual). Around the ma_rjali_ya seat dance (putting their right foot in front, in unison) eight male and eight female persons with jars full of water placed on their heads and singing songs praising cows and ga_tha_ which have a repetitive chorus: ‘this is honey'. (AB 5. 1. 5; S'a_tya_. S'S 16.6.39-41; A_pS'S 21.19-17-20)
Maha_vrata
Maha_vrata or vikr.ti occurs on vis.uvat (makarasam.kraman.a or winter solstice); karkasam.kraman.a or summer solstice (vis.uvat) was prakr.ti. TMB (4.10.3) recounts how vis.uvat was transferred to the maha_vrata day. Keith notes that the festival of swing and Kr.s.n.a worship (Ma_gha s'ukla 14) are remnants of the Maha_vrata, a celebration of the sam.vatsara (year) equating garutman with the sun. (RV 7.87.5 describes the sun as a golden swing).
There is a lexeme in Santali which may be concordant with Vedic ‘vrata' indicating the indigenous evolution of the tradition of vrata as a code of conduct and as a vow to be observed. Rada = a row, a line, a course, as of bricks on wall; radha corok = a contrivance by means of which Hindu devotees, and at times also Santals, swing as a religious observance (Santali.lex.)
tisro dya_vo nihita_ antar asmin tisro bhu_mir upara_h s.advidha_na_h
gr.tso ra_ja_ varun.as' cakra etam divi prenkham hiran.yaya s'ubhe kam (7.087.05)
In him are deposited the three heavens, the three earths with their six seasons are shown in him; the most adorable, royal Varun.a has made this golden sun undulating in the sky, he has made it to diffuse light. [The three earths: best, middle most, worst; tisro bhu_mi_rdha_rayan cf. RV. 2.027.08: trayo va_ ime trivr.to loka_h (Aitareya Bra_hman.a 2.17); he has made it to diffuse light: s'ubhe kam = di_ptyartham; kam = sukham].
Vra_tya in the a_gama tradition
The Atharva Veda mentions vra_tya-s as naturally pure and thus do not need any samska_ra. Pras'nopanis.ad refers to pra_n.a as vra_tya - vra_tyatvam pra_naikars.iratta_ (2.11); the interpretation is: "pra_n.a is vra_tya: one born first and so not needing purification..." Thou art vra_tya, O pra_n.a, and the ekars.i fire that devours the butter. Thou art the supreme Lord of all. We are the givers of the butter that you consume, O Matarisvan! You are our father. [Alternative translation: Thou art a Vratya, O Prana, the only Rishi, the consumer of everything, the good lord. We are the givers of what thou hast to consume, thou, O Matarisva, art our father.] Sukes'a, son of Bharadva_ja gets this answer to his second question from the venerable Pippala_da.
Juxtaposed to the Atharva Veda (15-11) which notes that anyone who entertains a vra_tya will gain the road that gods travels, the later-day tradition uses the term, vra_tya to connote specific vocations within the tradition of a_gamas.
vais.ya_ttu ja_yate vra_tya_t vra_tyat sudhanva_ca_rya eva ca
ka_rus'ca vijama_ ca maitrah sa_ttvata evaca
Manusmr.ti 10. 23. From a vra_tya (of the) vais'ya (caste) are born a sudhanvan, an a_karya, a karus.a, a vijanman, a maitra, and a satvata.
The previous two verses of the Manusmr.ti refer to other vra_tya-s: 21. But from a vra_tya (of the) bra_hman.a (caste) spring the wicked bhriggakant.aka, the avantya, the va_tadha_na, the pus.padha, and the s'aikha. 22. From a vra_tya (of the) ks.atriya (caste), the ghalla, the malla, the likkhivi, the nat.a, the karan.a, the khasa, and the dravid.a. The verse 20 notes that, those bra_hman.a-s who do not fulfil their sacred duties, and who are excluded from the Savitri, are designated as vra_tya-s. In reference to the mention of dravid.a as vra_tya, cf. A.P.Karmarkar, 1950, The Religions of India. Volume I: The Vratya or Dravidian Systems. Lonavla
Satvata practised pa_n~cara_tra. Ya_muna_ca_rya notes that the term, sa_tvata used in pa_n~cara_tra context may also connote a_ca_rya as belonging to the vra_tya community; that both bha_gavata and sa_tvata refer to the devotees of the Lord. Thus, the term vra_tya (satvata) may connote a bra_hman.a teacher, a_ca_rya. Vra_tya-s are temple-priests and temple-administrators, but bha_gavata-s perform the five-fold activities for the Lord (bhagava_n).
Mleccha[2], Vrata
Reference to Satvants of the Chambal valley may relate to the term, satvata, used in the pan~cara_tra tradition and vra_tya-s are associated with the people of Magadha. "The literature is replete with the names of clans. The most powerful among them, commanding the greatest respect, was the Kuru-Pañcala, which incorporated the two families of Kuru and Puru (and the earlier Bharatas) and of which the Pañcala was a confederation of lesser-known tribes. They occupied the Upper Doab and the Kuruksetra region. In the north the Kamboja, Gandhara, and Madra groups predominated. In the middle Ganges Valley the neighbours and rivals of the Kuru-Pañcalas were the Kasi, Kosala, and Videha, who worked in close cooperation with each other. The Magadha, Anga, and Vanga peoples in the lower Ganges Valley and delta were outside the Aryan pale and regarded as mlecchas. Magadha (Patna and Gaya districts of Bihar) is also associated with the vra_tya people, who occupied an ambiguous position between the Aryas and Mlecchas. Other mleccha tribes frequently mentioned include the Satvants of the Chambal valley and, in the Vindhyan and northern Deccan region, the Andhra, Vidarbha, Nisadha, Pulinda, and Sabara. The location of all these tribes is of considerable historical interest, because they gave their names to the geographic area." (http://www.britanica.com/bcom/eb/article/9/0, 5716, 121169+2+111197, 00.html)
Vra_tya ka_n.d.a of Atharva Veda
The vra_tya ka_n.d.a of Atharva Veda conclusively shows that the Vra_tya was a roving band (brata) or fellowship adored within the Brahmanical system. Cu_lika_ Upanis.ad (cf. Deussen's Upanis.ads, pp. 637, 640) notes the celebration of Brahman in the form of Vra_tya and mentions vra_tya and brahmaca_rin in the same verse. Cha_ndogya Upanis.ad (5.24.4) endorses that the sacrificial remnant may be offered even to an outcaste provided only that it be done with the right knowledge and it is as good as offering to the omnipresent Parama_tman.
"The Ka_n.d.a is a hymn in praise of the Vra_tya. Sayana observes that a Vra_tya is a person who has not undergone sacraments like Upanayana, the sacred thread ceremony. Such a person would normally be looked down upon in society, because he would not be authorized to take any part in religious ceremonies... But there are other meanings associated with the word which provide the background necessary to understand some of the Mantras. Scholars believe that the word was formerly used to denote those Aryan tribes which lived a semi-civilized nomad life and hovered on the skirts of Aryan settlements. The Ta_n.d.ya Bra_hman.a describes them as people who wore turbans as head-dresses, put on garments of black and white wool and rode on rough chariots. Their ornaments were made of silver. They took away food meant for sacrifice and took umbrage even at plain words. Though uninitiated, they spoke the language of the initiated. This refers, of course, to Samskrit quite obviously...They were gradually absorbed into Aryan settled society...
"They were Yogis in the main and worshipped God in His aspect of Rudra... In the Rudra_dhya_ya of the Yajur Veda, He is called Vra_tya and Us.n.is.i (the turbaned one). In this Ka_n.d.a under discussion, also there is a reference to his head-dress, his garments and his chariot... Western scholars have uniformly held that the Ka_n.d.a is in praise of the wandering mendicant." (pp. 10-12)
The vra_tyaka_n.d.a of Atharvaveda (see excerpts in Annexure) is the clearest enunciation of the fact that both yajn~ika and vra_tya were children of Prajapati. Yajn~a and vrata were parallel and complementary traditions, right from the days of the R.gveda. The very first s'loka of Vra_tyaka_n.d.a, Anuva_ka 1 reads: 1.1.1. Verily the Vra_tya was in a state of motion. He motivated (gave an impulse to) Praja_pati. Notes: In the Pappala_da recension, it is said, ‘Vra_tya was in the beginning of all this'. This clearly denotes that vra_tya were the early settlers who were fire-workers in Bharata. Vrata is a Vedic heritage which continues into the historical periods in Bharata and can be related to a_gama, yoga and tantric traditions which are integral to Bharatiya sabhyata.
Annexure
Excerpts from Vra_tyaka_n.d.a
vra_tya a_si_di_yama_na eva sa praja_patim samairayat (Anuva_ka 1.1.1)
Verily the Vra_tya was in a state of motion. He motivated (gave an impulse to) Praja_pati. Notes: In the Pappala_da recension, it is said, ‘Vra_tya was in the beginning of all this'.
sa ekavra_tyobhavat sa dhanura_datta tadevendradhanuh (1,1.6)
He became Eka-Vra_tya, He grasped the bow; that verily is Indra's bow (Eka-Vra_tya means one Vra_tya).
Notes: According to Nirukta, Dhanus (the bow) is one of the synonyms of bala (power). The bow is the supreme power, the aggregate of all powers and all forces. Va_k says, ‘I give the bow to Rudra to destroy the enemies of the Veda with arrows'. (RV 10.125-6)
sorajyata tato ra_janyoja_yata (2.1.1)
He was pleased, from this was born the Ra_janya.
Notes: Ra_ja_ (the pleaser, he who pleases) is so called because he pleases (gives pleasure to) the people. The word Ra_janya signifies the king and is used for the ks.attriya caste in general. This mantra emphasizes the fact that it is the duty of the ruler to keep his subjects satisfied.
sa vis'onu vyacalat (2.2.1)
He moved towards the subjects.
Notes: He meted out proper treatment to the citizens of the State.
tam sabha_ ca samitis'ca sena_ ca sura_ ca_nuvyacalan (2.2.2)
He was followed by the Sabha_ and the Samiti and the army and Sura_.
Notes: Sabha_ and Samiti are old Vedic terms standing for committes and deliberative bodies of various kinds. They would correspond roughly to meetings of representatives of the people and committees of small special groups. Those who constitute the government of a state should be followed by, have good relations with, such bodies. Rulers are given the blessing to become Samitinjaya, victors over the Samiti. The army should, of course, follow the ruler. Sura_ means wine. Wine leads to the commission of crime. The word, therefore, stands as a generic term for evil-doers of all kinds. A good state should naturally be able to control such men.
sabha_ya_s'ca vai sa samites'ca sena_ya_s'ca sura_ya_s'ca priyam dha_ma bhavati ya evam veda (2.2.3)
He who knows this becomes the beloved of the Sabha_ etc.
tad yasyaivam vidva_n vra_tyora_jn~otithirgr.ha_na_gaccheta
s'reya_msamenama_tmano ma_nayet tatha_ da_tra_ya na_ vr.s'cate tatha_ ks.atra_ya na_ vr.s'cate tatha_ ra_s.t.ra_ya na_ vr.s'cate (2.3.1-2)
If such a learned Vra_tya comes as a guest to the mansions of a King (1), (That king) should consider this (visit) auspicious for himself. By so doing he injures neither the Ks.atra nor the Ra_s.t.ra (2).
Notes: A learned Vra_tya is the person who has been referred to in a number of mantras above as one who knows this. He is a man who has realized his oneness with Brahma. The visit of such a saint is highly auspicious. By honouring him, the King increases his own Ks.atra (the power of the Ks.atriya), the power to govern and protect the State, and brings prosperity to the Ra_s.t.ra, the nation.
[Excerpts from: Sri Sampurn.a_nand, 1956, The Atharva Veda Vra_tyaka_n.d.a with S'rutiprabha commentary in English, Madras, Ganesh and Co.]
Vrata is used in contexts which lead to the semantics: discipline, soma vrata, secret vrata, dhuni vrata and juxtaposed to dharman.
Vrata is discipline
r.s.i: vis'va_mitra ga_thina; devata_: a_pri_su_kta 7 divya hota_ pracetas; chanda: tris.t.up
daivya_ hota_ra_ prathama_ ny r.nje sapta pr.ks.a_sah svadhaya_ madanti
r.tam s'r.latasanta r.tam it ta a_hur anu vratam di_dhya_na_h
Protection is expressed by vratapa_ in the context of r.ta, truth: 3.004.07 I propitiate the two chief divine invokers of the gods; the seven offerers of (sacrificial) food, expectant of water, gratify (Agni) with oblations; the illustrious observers of sacred rites have saluted him in every ceremony as (identifiable), verily, with water. [As identifiable with water: r.tam it ta a_huh = agnim eva r.tabhu_tam a_huh, they have called Agni, verily, r.ta; r.ta is usually rendered water but it may mean truth; in the preceding phrase, r.tam s'ansanta = udakam, desirous or expectant of water].
r.s.i: abhitapa_ saurya; devata_: su_rya; chanda: jagati_, 10 tris.t.up
vis'vasya hi pres.ito raks.asi vratam ahel.ayann uccarasi svadha_ anu
yad adya tva_ su_ryopabrava_mahai tam no deva_ anu mr.latasi_rata kratum
Universal vrata or discipline is the responsibility of A_ditya:10.037.05 When invoked, you who are gentle protect the rite of every (worshipper); you rise after the svadha_ offerings; when today we call upon you, may the gods be propitious to our sacred acts.
r.s.i: atri bhauma; devata_: indra, 5 su_rya, 6-9 atri; chanda: 1-3 us.n.ik, 5,9 anus.t.up, 4, 6-8 tris.t.up
Svarbha_nor adha yad indra ma_ya_ avo divo vartama_na_ ava_han
Gu_l.ham su_ryam tamasa_pavratena turi_yen.a Brahman.a_vindad atrih
5.040.08 Atri got the Sun's light covered with apavrata: 5.040.08 Then the Brahman, (Atri), applying the stones together, propitiating the gods with praise, and adoring them with reverence, placed the eye of Su_rya in the sky; he dispersed the delusions of Svarbha_nu. The preceding r.ca-s of the su_kta explains su_rya's functions:
5.040.05 When, Su_rya, the son of the Asura Svarbha_nu, overspread you with darkness, the worlds were beheld like one bewildered knowing not his place. [Svarbha_nu: is a name of ra_hu, the personified ascending node, the causer of an eclipse; he was a son of kas'yapa, by Danu, the mother of the Da_navas or asuras; another genealogy makes him the son of Vipraciti, by Sim.hika_, the sister of Hiran.yakas'ipu].
5.040.06 When, Indra, you were dissipating those illusions of Svarbha_nu which were spread below the sun, then Atri, by his fourth sacred prayer, discovered the sun concealed by the darkness impeding his functions. [i.e., by the four stanzas of this su_kta from the fifth to the eighth]
5.040.07 Su_rya speaks: Let not the violator, Atri, through hunger, swallow with fearful (darkness) me who am yours; you are Mitra, whose wealth is truth; do you and the royal Varun.a both protect me.
Soma Vrata
r.s.i: hiran.yastu_pa a_n:girasa; devata_: pavama_na soma; chanda: jagati_, 9-10 tris.t.up
is.ur na dhanvan prati dhi_yate matir vatso na ma_tur upa sajyu_ra u_dhani
urudha_reva duhe agra a_yaty asya vrates.v api soma is.yate
There is a desire to perform the function of yajna, soma vrata: 9.069.01 (Our) praise is attached (to Indra) as an arrow to the bow; (the Soma-juice) is let loose to (Indra) the fosterer as a calf to the udder to its mother; (Indra sheds blessings) as a cow having a copious stream of milk yields it when coming into the presence (of the calf); in Indra's sacrifices the Soma is stimulated. [The fosterer: u_dhani = Indra, because he is the nourisher of everything].
r.s.i: amahi_yu a_n:girasa; devata_: pavama_na soma; chanda: ga_yatri_
Tvota_sas tava_vasa_ sya_ma vanvanta a_murah
Soma vrates.u ja_gr.hi
The prayer is for waking up to perform the Soma vrata: 9.061.24 Protected by you, through your protection may we be victorious, slaying (our enemies); be vigilant Soma, at our sacrifices.
r.s.i: medha_tithi ka_n.va; devata_: indra; chanda: ga_yatri_
yo vis'va_ny abhi vrata_ somasya made andhasah
indro deves.u cetati
The vrata of soma are in the intoxication of food, andhas: 8.032.28 Indra, who, in the exhilaration of the quaffed Soma, makes known among the gods all pious rites.
r.s.i: kavas.a ailu_s.a; devata_: vis'vedeva_: chanda: jagati_, 6-9 tris.t.up
nidhi_yama_nam apagu_l.ham apsu pra me deva_na_m vratapa_ uva_ca
indro vidva_ anu hi tva_ cacaks.a tena_ham agne anus'is.t.a a_ga_m
Divine vrata is placed and concealed in apas, the waters; vratapa_, the protector or guardian of the vrata is Indra: 10.032.06 The guardian of the sacred rites of the gods, Indra, said to me, (Agni), who had been deposited in the waters; the sagacious Indra, following you, Agni, has discovered you, therefore, admonished by him may I, Agni, proceed to heaven. [Deposited in the waters: a play on the word nidhi_yama_nam, being deposited; also, a title of the fire placed on the altar, at the kurus'ravan.a ceremony]
Secret Vrata
r.s.i: sadhri vairu_pa or dharma ta_pasa; devata_: vis'vedeva_; chanda: tris.t.up, 4 jagati_
tisro des.t.ra_ya nirr.ti_r upa_sate di_rghas'ruto vi hi ja_nanti vahnayah
ta_sa_m ni cikyuh kavayo nida_nam pares.u ya_ guhyes.u vrates.u
Secret vrata are not known to kavi: 10.114.02 The three Nirr.tis do obeisance for the gist (of oblations), for (the gods), the far-famed sustainers (of the universe), know (their obeisance); the wise have ascertained the primary cause of these (divinities) who (exist) in the conspicuous (or) in the hidden observances. [The three Nirr.tis: nir.r.ti= the earth; nirr.tih = the three regions, earth, mid-air, and heaven, or the three deities (Agni etc.) presiding over those regions].
r.s.i: di_rghatama_ aucathya; devata_: r.bhugan.a; chanda: jagati_, 14 tris.t.up
Asi yamo asy a_dityo arvann asi trito guhyena vratena
Asi somena samaya_ vipr. A_hus te tri_n.i divi bandhana_ni
Secret vrata is related to Yama and A_ditya: 1.163.03 Your horse is Yama and you are A_ditya; you are Trita by a mysterious act; you are associated with Soma. The sages have said there are three bindings of you in heaven. [By a mysterious act: guhyena vratena gopani_yena, durdina ru_pen.a va_ karman.a_ sarvatra vya_ptiru_pen.a, by a secret nature of a cloudy day, or an act of a universally penetrating character; the three bindings: bandhana_ni tri_n.i = utpattika_ran.a_ni, media of origin, that is the Vasus, A_ditya and heaven].
Dhunivrata
r.s.i: evaya_marut a_treya; devata_: marudgan.a; chanda: ati jagati_
pra vo mahe matayo yantu vis.n.ave marutvate girija_ evaya_marut
pra s'ardha_ya prayajyave sukha_daye tavase bhandadis't.aye dhunivrata_ya s'avase
The practice of dhu_ni involves a sage sitting by the side of fire: 5.087.01 May the voice-born praises of Evaya_marut reach you, Vis.n.u, attended by the Maruts; (may they reach) the strong, the adorable, the brilliantly-adorned, the vigorous, praise-loving, cloud-scattering, quick-moving company of the Maruts. [Vis.n.u attended by the Maruts: vis.n.ave marutvate: vis.n.ave is an adjective to the pervading, vya_ta_ya, i.e. Indra, of whom Marutvat is a designation; alternative: vis.n.ave va_, or to Vis.n.u] [This su_kta is attributed to r.s.i evaya_marut; this is perhaps an epithet of the Maruts]
r.s.i: s'ya_va_s'va a_treya; devata_: marudgan.a; chanda: tris.t.up
Tves.am gan.am tavasam kha_dihastam dhunivratam ma_yinam da_tiva_ram
Mayobhuvo ye amita_ mahitva_ vandasva vipra tuvira_dhaso nr.u_n
Dhunivrata is explained in the context of gan.a and kha_dihasta or priest adorned with bracelets (not unlike the person sitting in penance shown on Sarasvati hieroglyphs): 5.058.02 Adore, priest, the resplendent and powerful company, whose arms (are decorated) with bracelets, whose function is the agitation (of the trees), who are wise, and by whom wealth is conferred; they who are bestowers of felicity, whose greatness is unbounded; glorify the opulent leaders (of rites).
Dharma and Vrata
r.s.i: vis'va_mitra ga_thina; devata_; r.bhugan.a, 5,6 r.bhugan.a and indra; chanda: jagati_
indra r.bhuma_n va_java_n matsveha no smin savane s'acya_ purus.t.uta
ima_ni tubhyam svasara_n.i yemire vrata_ deva_na_m manus.as' ca dharmabhih
Vrata is performed for deva; human beings perform dharma, virtuous acts: 3.060.06 Indra, the praised of many, associated with R.bhu, and with Va_ja, exult with S'aci, at this our sacrifice; these self-revolving (days) are devoted to you, as well as the ceremonies (addressed) to the gods, and the virtuous acts of man. [S'aci = karman, act, rite].
r.s.i: ba_huvr.kta a_treya; devata_: mitra_varun.a; chanda: us.n.ik
vratena stho dhruvaks.ema_ dharman.a_ ya_tayajjana_
ni barhis.i sadatam somapi_taye
Vrata assures ks.ema - protection of earned wealth -- and dharma inspires people to activity: 5.072.02 Steady are you in your functions, whom men animate by (their) devotion; come and sit down upon the sacred grass to drink the Soma libation.
r.s.i: prabhuvasu a_n:girasa; devata_: pavama_na soma; chanda: ga_yatri_
vis'vo yasya vrate jano da_dha_ra dharman.as pateh
puna_nasya prabhu_vasoh
The substance of the whole world (vis'va) is through vrata of people, founded by dharman.aspati: 9.035.06 On the worship of whom all men fix their thoughts -- the lord of pious acts, the purified, the possessor of abundant wealth.
r.s.i: di_rghatama_ aucathya; devata_: agni; chanda: jagati_, 12-13 tris.t.up
Tvaya_ hy agne varun.o dhr.tavrato mitrah s'a_s'adre aryama_ suda_navah
Yat si_m anu kratuna_ vis'vatha_ vibhur ara_n na nemih paribhu_r aja_yatha_h
Varun.a is dhr.tavrata, the sustainer of the law: 1.141.09 By you, Agni; Varun.a, observant of his duties and Mitra and Aryaman, bountiful divinities, are animated, so that you have been born comprehending them all universally in all (their) functions, and encompassing (them all) as the circumference (encompasses) the spokes (of a wheel).
r.s.i: na_bha_ka ka_n.va and arcana_na_ a_treya; devata_; 1-3 varun.a, 4-6 as'vini_kuma_ra; chanda: 1-3 tris.t.up, 4-6 anus.t.up
Astabhna_d dya_m asuro vis'vaveda_ amimi_ta varima_n.am pr.thivya_h
A_si_dad vis'va_ bhuvana_ni samra_d. vis'vet ta_ni varun.asya vrata_ni
All the functions inherent in vrata are protected by Varun.a as samra_t.: 8.042.01 The possessor of all wealth, the powerful Varun.a, has fixed the heaven; he has meted the measure of the earth; he presides as supreme monarch over all worlds; these all are the functions of Varun.a.
dhr.tavrata_h ks.atriya_ yajnis.kr.to br.haddiva_ adhvara_n.a_m abhis'riyah
agnihota_r r.tasa_po adruho po asr.jann anu vr.tratu_rye
Ks.atriya are dhr.tavrata in relation to yajna: 10.066.08 The (gods) observing obligations endowed with vigour, developers of sacrifice, possessed of abundant brightness, the defenders of sacrifices, having Agni for their priest, enjoying truth, unassailable, set free the waters at the combat with the Vr.tra. [Vigour: ks.atriyah = of the ks.atriya clan; or, strong].
r.s.i: bharadva_ja ba_rhaspatya; devata_: indra_varun.a; chanda: tris.t.up, 9-10 jagati_
indra_varun.a_ sutapa_v imam sutam somam pibatam madyam dhr.tavrata_
yuvo ratho adhvaram devavi_taye prati svasaram up aya_ti pi_taye
6.068.10 Indra and Varun.a, observant of holy duties, drinkers of the Soma, drink this exhilarating effused libation; your chariot approaches along the road to the sacrifice, (that you may partake) of the food of the gods and drink (the Soma).
r.s.i: ba_huvr.kta a_treya; devata_: mitra_varun.a; chanda: us.n.ik
vratena stho dhruvaks.ema_ dharman.a_ ya_tayajjana_
ni barhis.i sadatam somapi_taye
The welfare of people is kept firm (dhruva) by vrata and dharman which also keep them active: 5.072.02 Steady are you in your functions, whom men animate by (their) devotion; come (mitra_varun.a) and sit down upon the sacred grass to drink the Soma libation.
r.s.i: bindu or pu_tadaks.a a_n:girasa; devata_: marudgan.a; chanda: ga_yatri_
yasya_ deva_ upasthe vrata_ vis've dha_rayante
su_rya_ma_sa_ dr.s'e kam
Dharma is implied by the root dhr. (dha_rayante) as it is related to vrata, divine functions: 8.094.02 She, in whose presence all the gods observe their functions, and the sun and moon move in peace to enlighten the world. 8.094.01 The cow (Pr.s.ni), the food-desiring mother of the wealthy Maruts, drinks (the Soma) -- she is worthy of all honour, who yokes (the mares) to their chariots. [The cow: cf. RV. 1.23.10; 2.34.2]
r.s.i: bharadva_ja ba_rhaspatya; devata_: dya_va_ pr.thvi_; chanda: jagati_
6.070.03 yo va_mr.jave kraman.a_ya rodasi_ mato dada_s'a dhis.an.e sa sa_dhati
pra praja_bhirja_yate dharman.aspari yuvoh sikta_ vis.uru_pa_n.i savrata_
Various vrata are observed in the next generation along with dharma par excellence: 6.070.03 Firm-set Heaven and Earth, the mortal who has offered (oblations) for your straight-forward course, accomplishes (his objects), he prospers with progeny, and invigorated by your operation, many beings of various forms, but similar functions, are engendeed.
r.s.i: vis'va_mitra ga_thina; devata_; r.bhugan.a, 5, 6 r.bhugan.a and indra; chanda: jagati_
indra r.bhuma_n va_java_n matsveha no smin savane s'acya_ purus.t.uta
ima_ni tubhyam svasara_n.i yemire vrata_ deva_na_m manus.as' ca dharmabhih
Vrata is sought to be controlled through dharman by both deva and manus: 3.060.06 Indra, the praised of many, associated with R.bhu, and with Va_ja, exult with S'aci, at this our sacrifice; these self-revolving (days) are devoted to you, as well as the ceremonies (addressed) to the gods, and the virtuous acts of man. [S'aci = karman, act, rite].
What is vrata, who are the vratya_?
r.s.i: praga_tha ka_n.va; devata_: soma; chanda: tris.t.up, 5 jagati_
soma ra_jan mr.l.aya_ nah svasti tava smasi vratya_s tasya viddhih
alarti daks.a uta manyur indo ma_ no aryo anuka_mam para_ da_h
Vratya_ are worshippers, followers of vrata: 8.048.08 King Soma, bless us for our welfare; we worshippers are yours, do you recognize it; the enemy goes strong and fierce, O Soma; give us not over to him as he desires.
r.s.i: kaks.i_va_n dairghatamasa (aus'ija); devata_: us.a_; chanda: tris.t.up
Aminati_ daivya_ni vrata_ni praminati_ manus.ya_ yuga_ni
I_yus.i_n.a_m upama_ s'asvati_na_m a_yati_na_m prathamos.a_ vy adyaut
The divine vrata are indestructible, while human generations will try to violate (root mi-) the vrata, the orders: 1.124.02 Unimpeding divine rites, although wearing away the ages of mankind, the dawn shines the similitude of the (mornings) that have passed, or that are to be forever, the first of those that are to come. [Unimpeding: aminati ahim.santi_, not injuring, not opposing, not unsuited to; being the fit season for performance].
na deva_na_m ati vratam s'ata_tma_ cana ji_vati
tatha_ yuja_ vi va_vr.te
10.033.09 No one lives hundred years passing the limit fixed by the gods; so he is separated from his friends. [Hundred years: No one, even if he has a hundred lives, can live beyond the limit fixed]. Alternative interpretation: violators of this vrata shall not be alive.
vis.n.oh karma_n.i pas'yata yato vrata_ni paspas'e
indrasya yujyah sakha_
1.022.19 Behold the deeds of Vis.n.u, through which (the worshipper) has accomplished (pious) vows; he is the worthy friend of Indra.
te hi vasvo vasava_na_s te apramu_ra_ mahobhih
vrata_ raks.ante vis'va_ha_
1.090.02 For they are the distributors of wealth (over the world); and never heedless, discharge their functions every day.
ya_ nu s'veta_v avo diva uccara_ta upa dyubhih
indra_gnyor anu vratam uha_na_ yanti sindhavo ya_n si_m bandha_d amuncata_m nabhanta_m anyake same
Sindhu flows because of the activites of Indra and Agni: 8.040.08 Offering oblations, (the worshippers) approach to the worship of Indra and Agni, who are of a white complexion, and rise from below with bright rays to heaven; they verily have liberated the waters from bondage; may all our adversaries perish.
r.s.i: us'ana_ ka_vya; devata_: pavma_na soma; chanda: tris.t.up
ra_jno nut e varun.asya vrata_ni br.had gabhi_ram tava soma dha_ma
s'ucis. t.vam asi priyo na mitro daks.a_yyo aryameva_si soma
According to Keith, concepts of pa_pa and pun.ya are based on royal activities of Varun.a (Keith, A.B., 1908, S'a_n:kha_hyana A_ran.yaka with an appendix on Mah_vrata, London; S'Br. 9.2.7.33 contrasts sa_dhu kr.tya and pa_pa kr.tya): 9.088.08 Your acts are (like) those of the royal Varun.a, vast and profound, Soma, is your abode; you are pure as the beloved Mitra, munificent are you, Soma, as Aryaman. [Varun.a: 'I quickly perform the sacrifices of you the cover'; varun.a = vara_ka].
na_na_nam va_ u no dhiyo vi vrata_ni jana_na_m
taks.a_ ris.t.am rutam bhis.ag brahma_ sunvantam icchati_ndra_yendo pari srava
Different types of activities of people are found: 9.112.01 Various are our acts, (various) are the occupations of men; the carpenter desires timber, the physician disease, the bra_hman.a a worshipper who effuses Soma; flow, Indu for Indra.
r.s.i: savya a_n:girasa; devata_: indra; chanda: jagati_, 14-15 tris.t.up)
vi ja_ni_hy a_rya_n ye ca dasyavo barhis.mate randhaya_ s'a_sad avrata_n
s'a_ki_ bhava yajama_nasya codita_ vis'vet ta_ te sadhama_des'u ca_kana
Both a_rya and dasyu perform yajna; the only distinction should be between those who perform yajna and those who do not perform yajna: 1.051.08 Discriminate between the A_ryas and they who are Dasyus; restraining those who perform no religious rites, compel them to submit to the performer of sacrifices; be you, who are powerful, the encourager of the sacrificer; I am desirous of celebrating all your deeds in ceremonies that give you satisfaction.
r.s.i: na_rada ka_n.va; devata_: indra; chanda: us.n.ik
stoat_ yat te anuvrata uktha_ny r.tutha_ dadhe
s'ucih pa_vaka ucyate so adbhutah
Vrata is accompanied with the singing of uktha: 8.013.19 Your worshipper is observant of his duty, inasmuch as he offers prayers indue season; for you are he who is called pure, purifying, wonderful.
r.s.i: vasis.t.ha maitra_varun.i; devata_: man.d.u_ka; chanda: tris.t.up, anus.t.up
samvatsaram s'as'aya_na_ bra_hman.a_ vraca_rin.ah
va_cam parjanyajinvita_m pra man.du_ka_ ava_dis.uh
Students are referred to as the followers of vrata vrataca_rin.ah: 7.103.01 The frogs, like Bra_hman.as, observant of their vows, practising penance throughout the year, utter aloud praises agreeable to Parjanya. [Vasis.t.ha, having praised Parjanya, in order to procure rain, observing the frogs to be delighted by his praises, addressed them in this hymn. Practising penance = lit. lying still, i.e. performing penance for rain]
r.s.i: vasukarn.a va_suka; devata_: vis'vedeva-: chanda: jagati_, 15 tris.t.up
ya gaur vartanim paryeti nis.kr.tam payo duha_na_ vratani_r ava_ratah
sa_ prabruva_n.a_ varun.a_ya da_s'us.e devebhyo da_s'ad dhavis.a_ vivasvati
The vrata of the cow is to yield abundant milk: 10.065.06 May that cow, the leader of the rite, which yielding her milk proceeds uncalled to the consecrated place (of sacrifice), may she, propitiated by me, yield her milk to (me), the offerer of oblations to liberal Varun.a and the (other) gods. [Milk: of strength, gauh = thunder, ma_dhyamika_ va_k; cf. RV 8.100.11; offer of oblations: vivasvati = madhyam deva_n paricarate; da_s'us.e = an epithet of Varun.a].
r.s.i: atri bhauma; devata_: parjanya; chanda: tris.t.up, 2-4 jagati_, 9 anus.t.up
yasya vrate pr.thivi_ nannami_ti yasya vrate s'aphavaj jarbhuri_ti
yasya vrata os.adhi_r vis'varu_pa_h sa nah parjanya mahi s'arma yaccha
Parjanya's vrata is to grant great protection through a variety of medicinal plants: 5.083.05 Do you, Parjanya, through whose function the earth is bowed down; through whose function hoofed cattle thrive; through whose function plants assume all kinds of forms, grant us great felicity.
r.s.i: kas'yapa ma_ri_ca; devata_: pavama_na soma; chanda: ga_yatri_
vr.s.a_ soma dyuma_ asi vr.s.a_ deva vr.s.avratah
vr.s.a_ dharma_n.i dadhis.e
Soma is vr.s.avrata with the function of sprinkling: 9.064.01 You, Soma, are the bright sprinkler; you shining (Soma) are the sprinkler whose occupation is sprinkling; you, the sprinkler, sustain the rites (of men and gods).
r.s.i: vasis.t.ha maitra_varun.i; devata_: vis'vedeva_: chanda: tris.t.up
s'am no aditir bhavatu vratebhih s'am no bhavantu marutah svarka_h
s'am no vis.n.uh s.am u pu_s.a_ no astu s'am no bhavitram s'am v astu va_yuh
Prayers are offered to Aditi and Maruts for vrata which has a social purpose, to get happiness and peace: 7.035.09 May Aditi, with holy observances, be (for) our happiness; may the glorified Maruts be (friendly to) our felicity; may Vis.n.u, may Pu_s.an, be (promoters of) our happiness; may the firmament be propitious to us; may Va_yu (blow for) our happiness.
pra sa mitra marto astu prayasva_n yas ta a_ditya s'iks.ati vratena
na hanyate na ji_yate tvoto nainam r.lataho as'noty antito na du_ra_t
One becomes active working under the vrata of A_ditya: 3.059.02 May that mortal enjoy abundance, Mitra, who presents you, A_ditya, (with offerings) at the sacred rite; protected by you he is not harmed; he is not overcome by any one; son reaches him not, either from afar or high.
es.a vr.s.a_ vr.s.avratah pavama_no as'astiha_
karad vasu_ni da_s'us.e
9.062.11 This Pavama_na Soma, the sprinkler (of benefits), engaged in sprinkling, the destroyer of ra_ks.asas, bestows riches upon the donor (of the oblation).
r.s.i: kavi bha_rgava; devata_: pavama_na soma; chanda: ga_yatri_
sr.latavr.dhr.s.n.um ukthyam maha_mahivratam madam
s'atam puro ruruks.an.im
Ukthya is an activity, a vrata: 9.048.02 The overthrower of the resolute (foe), the praiseworthy, to whom many solemn observances are addressed, the exhilarator, the destroyer of a hundred cities (of the asuras).
r.s.i: ku_rma ga_rtsamad or gr.tsamada; devata_: varun.a 10, duhsvapnana_s'ini_; chanda: tris.t.up
namah puro te varun.ota nu_nam uta_param tuvija_ta brava_ma
tve hi kam parvate na s'rita_ny apracyuta_ni du_l.abha vrata_ni
2.028.08 As we have offered adoration to you, Varun.a, of old, in like manner as we offer it now, so may we offer it in future (to you), who are everywhere present; for in you, who are difficult of attainment, as in an (immoveable) mountain, all holy acts are assembled, and are not to be dissevered.
r.s.i: hiran.yastu_pa a_n:girasa; devata_: agni; chanda: jagati_ 8, 16, 18 tris.t.up
Tvam agne pramatis tvam pita_si nas tvam vayaskr.t tava ja_mayo vayam
Sam tva_ ra_yah s'atinah sam sahasrin.ah suvi_ram yanti vratapa_m ada_bhya
War is also a vrata, an activity: 1.031.10 You, Agni, are well disposed to us, you are our protector, you are the giver of life to us; we are your kinsmen. Uninjurable Agni, hundreds and thousands of treasures belong to you, who are the defender of pious acts and attended by good men.
r.s.i: ren.u vais'va_mitra; devata_: pavama_na soma; chanda: jagati_, 10 tris.t.up
Sa mr.jyama_no das'abhih sukarmabhih pra madhyama_su ma_tr.s.u prame saca_
Vrata_ni pa_no amr.tasya ca_run.a ubhe nr.caks.a_ anu pas'yate vis'au
Vis', public or social activity is also a vrata: 9.070.04 Cleansed by the ten well-working (fingers), the companion (of the waters) stands among the midmost mothers to measure (the worlds); the beholder of men protecting sacred rites (for the sake) of auspicious ambrosia looks after both races. [Among the midmost mothers: ma_tr.s.u; madhyama_su = placed in the atmosphere; look after both races: gods and men, i.e., ‘men by granting them their desires, gods by bestowing oblations upon them']
r.s.i: vasis.t.ha maitra_varun.i; devata_: us.a_; chanda: tris.t.up
eto tye bha_navo dars'ata_ya_s' citra_ us.aso amr.ta_sa a_guh
janayanto daivya_ni vrata_ny a_pr.n.anto antariks.a_ vy asthuh
Divine vrata is related to antariks.a: 7.075.03 These wonderful, immortal rays of the beautiful dawn appear, giving birth to the pious rites of divine worship, and filling the firmament, they spread around.
r.s.i: ku_rma ga_rtsamada or gr.tsamada; devata_: a_dityagan.a; chanda: tris.t.up
tisro bhu_mir dha_rayan tri_uta dyu_n tri_n.i vrata_ vidathe antar es.a_m
r.tena_ditya_ mahi vo mahitvam tad aryaman varun.a mitra ca_ru
r.s.i: r.s.abha vaira_ja or r.s.abha s'akvara; devata_: sapatna-hanta_; chanda: anus.t.up, 5 maha_pan:kti
Abhibhu_r aham a_gamam vis'vakarmen.a dha_mna_
A_ vas' cittam a_ vo vratam a_ vo ham samitim dade
Together with vidatha, samiti is invoked in regard to protection for vrata: 10.166.04 I have come triumphant with power, equal to any exploit; I seize upon minds, your pious observances, your prowess in war.
r.s.i: va_madeva gautama; devata_: savita_: chanda: jagati_
trir antariks.am savita_ mahitvana_ tri_ raja_msi paribhus tri_n.i rocana_
tisro divah pr.thivi_s tisra invati tribhir vratair abhi no raks.ati tmana_
4.053.05 Three vrata protect the three diva and three pr.thivi_: Savita_, encompassing them by his magnitude, pervades the three (divisions of the) firmament, the three worlds, the three brilliant sphere, the three heavens, the threefold earth may he, by his three functions, of his own (pleasure) protect us. [Three divions of the firmament: antariks.a is divided between Va_yu, Vidyut and Varun.a, in three portions; three brilliant spheres: the regions of Agni, Va_yu and Su_rya; three heavens: the lokas of Indra, Praja_pati and Satyaloka; threefold earth = three ores; three functions: those of distributing heat, rain and cold]
About the Author (Dr. S. Kalyanaraman): was a senior executive in the Asian Development Bank for 18 years until 1995. He was responsible for disbursing a portfolio of US Dollars 60 Billion for over 650 development projects in 29 countries. He also introduced a world-wide information network for managing the assets of the bank. He has travelled widely in Bharat, and has visited many countries around the world.
Earlier to 1978, he was Chief Controller of Accounts, Karnataka Electricity Board and as member of Indian Railway Accounts Service, a financial advisor on the Railways, for 17 years. He has also worked in the Accountant General's Office, Bangalore for 4 years from 1958 to 1961. He was involved in the introduction of the first computers on the Railways in 1965, as a member of a Task Force set up by the Electronics Commission of India.
He has a Ph.D. in Public Administration and his two volume work, Public Administration in Asia has been published which is a comparative study of development administration in six Asian countries. His graduate degree is in Economics and Statistics. He was born in 1939 in Tanjore district. He is well-versed in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, Hindi and Sanskrit languages.
He took voluntary retirement from the Bank and returned to Bharat, to devote himself to his life-activity of researches on River Sarasvati and Bharatiya Civilization. He directs the Sarasvati Research Centre which is affiliated with Akhil Bharatiya Itihasa Sankalana Yojana. He has done researches on the discovery of the courses of Vedic River Sarasvati and the possibility of this river flowing again as part of a national network of rivers. He has been involved in promoting the National Water Grid to ensure water for everyone for several generations to come and to take the nation to a developed country status by the year 2010.
He has set up a website with over 30,000 files on River Sarasvati and Civilization at http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati The site includes his multi-lingual dictionary for over 25 ancient languages of Bharat, Rigveda rica-s and translation into English based on Sa_yana Bhaashya The Indiancivilization internet group set up by him has over 750 active members from all parts of the world, discussing Bharatiya Civilization issues.. His 1100-page volume on Sarasvati was published from Bangalore in 2001. His 7-volume encyclopaedic work on Sarasvati Civilization was published in 2004. The 7 volumes are: Sarasvati: Civilization; Sarasvati: Rigveda; Sarasvati: River; Sarasvati: Bharati; Sarasvati: Technology; Sarasvati: Language; Sarasvati: Epigraphs. He has cracked the code of Sarasvati hieroglyphs as artisan guilds' activities related to minerals, metals, furnaces and artifacts of metals in a transition from chalcolithic to alloy (bronze/brass) phase of civilization. He presented his research findings on Sarasvati in the World Sanskrit Conference held in Bangalore in 1996. He is a recipient of the prestigious Vakankar Award in the year 2000. He is President of the World Association of Vedic Studies in Bharat, and is associated with many research and non-governmental voluntary organizations including Rashtrotthana Research and Communications Centre in Bangalore, India.
S. Kalyanaraman
20 August 2005
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http://www.hindunet.org/saraswati
[1] Dr. S. Kalyanaraman, 2003, Sarasvati: Epigraphs, Bangalore, Babasaheb Apte Smarak Samiti (Volume 7 of 7-volume encyclopaedic work on Sarasvati Civilization). (The monograph in reference to the vra_tya tradition, draws from the references cited in: V.W. Karambelkar, 1969, Vedic Maha_vrata, in: KR Cama Oriental Institute Golden Jubilee Volume, Bombay, pp. 159 to 178; Radhakrishna Choudhary, 1964, The Vra_tyas in Ancient India, Varanasi, The Chowkhambba Sanskrit Series Office; Chowkhamba Sanskrit tudies, Vol. XXXVIII; and J. Hauer, 1927, Der Vra_tya, Stuttgart)
[2] See S. Kalyanaraman, 2003, Mleccha (Prakrit) in Mahabharata, Paper presented in the international Conference on Mahabharata, Kanchi University.
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