Women as intellectuals: Vedic period and beyond

– Mira Govindrajan

What is so heroic about intellectuals?” dear reader, you may well ask.

“As a warrior fells an enemy with his darts, O sage, I rise to decimate you with my questions.” Thus resonated the challenge of the great woman scholar, Gargi, to sage Yajnavalkya, one of the principal authors of the Upanishads, through the court of King Janaka.

All revolutions in human history – whether it be the dawn of democracy, of science, of communism, of information technology – have been heralded by intellectuals. Galileo, Thoreau, Rousseau, Voltaire, Marx, Engels, all of them challenged the existing order, for better or worse, enduring great personal privations. Like the first shaft of the sun’s rays piercing the darkness, since time immemorial, intellectuals have pointed out to humanity the path it must take.

The seers of the Vedas and Upanishads may be justly regarded as the harbingers of Hindu civilization. The forests wherein the Upanishads were composed were the birth places of Indian civilization. As the poet Tagore points out in his Sadhana, this mode of inception accounts for the liberality and all-embracing nature of the Hindu ethos.

What were the contributions of women, if any, to this phenomenon?

Hindu civilization has been accused, perhaps with some justification, of glorifying women in mythology and denigrating them in daily life. This article and the succeeding pieces therefore will limit themselves to historical accounts, insofar as they are available. It is not without a pang of regret that this pen leaves behind the wealth of mythology that is so real and so dear to all Hindus and has played so great a role in shaping the Indian psyche.

pradeepa jvaalaabhir-divasakara neeraajana vidhih ~

sudhaa sootes-chandraopala jala lavair-arghya rachanaa | ~

swakeeyair-ambhobhih salila nidhi sauuhitya karanam ~

tvadeeyaabhir-vaagbhi stava janani vaachaam stutiriyam ||

As one off tions to the ocean with its own water,

With these verses bestowed by You, O Mother,

I have composed these paeans in Your praise.

These concluding lines from the composition Saundarya Lahari (Waves of Beatitude) reflect the utter humility of the seer Sri Adi Shankara, indisputably the greatest Vedic scholar of the Kaliyuga, as he dedicated this immortal work to the Divine Mother.

In Hindu mythology, the Divine Mother, as Saraswathi, the goddess of learning, is held to be the source of all knowledge, of all the arts and crafts. The Gita describes the skill of speech, memory and the intellect as feminine attributes.
mrutyuh sarva-haras chaham
udbhavas cha bhavishyatam ~
kirtih srir vak cha narinam smrutir
medha dhrutih kshama ~ ~ (10.34)

I am the all-consuming death,
the progenitor of that which is yet to be;

Among women I am fame, the skill of speech, memory, intellect, fidelity, patience and forgiveness.

The Vedas are believed to have been transcribed by both men and women – rishis and rishikas. Yet, we had degenerated to a point where women – like my music teacher gifted with a melodious voice and profound jnana – were relegated to the kitchen. She was refused permission even to sing in private by her husband and in-laws. The innumerable subterfuges she adopted to keep her skills alive and to transmit the art to her students is a saga common to millions of unnamed heroines in Hindu society. Countless women have undergone great travails to also obtain an education from a male-dominated society.

The famous Hindu woman scholar, Pandita Ramabai, has contended that there is no period in Indian history where women had equal status. The biographies of the scholars, Gargi, Maitreyi and Sulabhi in Vedic times; of Ubhaya Bharathi, in later years, who challenged Sri Adi Shankara himself and of the saint-poetess Avvaiyaar, refute and yet confirm this assertion, in part. Some prominent later day women intellectuals were Pandita Ramabai herself, Jahanaara, the daughter of Shahjahan, who chronicled the beginning of the end for the Mughal dynasty and Sarojini Naidu. This account will explore these biographies, one by one, though later day heroines will be dealt with in subsequent sections. This article will not serve its purpose without exploring albeit briefly the intellectual prowess of mythological heroines.

dharmaat arthah prabhavati
dharmaat prabhavate sukham ~
dharmeNa labhate sarvam
dharma saaram idam jagat ~~ 3.9.30

strii chaapalaat etat udaahritam
medharmam cha vaktum tava kah samarthah ~
vichaarya buddhyaa tu saha anujena
yat rochate tat kuru ma achireNa ~~ 3.9.33

From rightful life (dharma) comes prosperity,
Happiness too emanates from dharma
All is gained from dharma,
indeed this entire universe is based on dharma.
All this I speak because of my wavering woman’s mind,
for who may presume to debate on dharma with you?
Therefore, please reflect on this along with your brother
and do the needful, without delay.

Such is the wise counsel given by Sita, to her husband Sri Rama in the Valmiki Ramayana. Indeed a whole chapter is dedicated to this sage advice. She proceeds to list the three cardinal sins humans may be guilty of – dishonesty, lust and violence. She elaborates – “dishonesty is unthinkable for one who has left a kingdom to uphold his father’s word, do I not know that you will not even let the shadow of another woman fall upon you? It is therefore the last, attacking someone without personal enmity (vina vaire), that concerns me”. He had given his word to the sages in the Dandaka forest to destroy the demons who persecuted them.

This, Sita felt, was the duty of kings and warriors and not that of her husband who had taken upon himself the role of an ascetic in the forest. She rightly points out that dharma is not a fixed entity, rather what is appropriate and what is not, depends on the circumstances. She goes on to tell a story of an ascetic who lost the merits of his penance when he was gifted a sword by Indra, king of the celestials, with that very intent. She compares violence without provocation, to a fire that consumes the perpetrator. Her advice proves to be prophetic.

She evidently feels that as a woman she is being presumptuous in advising her husband. Yet he does not take it amiss, indeed his respect and admiration for her increases several fold. He says that nothing less can be expected of a daughter of an eminent scholar like King Janaka. An example for modern mortal men who feel intimidated by intellectual women.

Earlier in the epic, Sri Rama’s mother, Kausalya, displays both erudition and worldly wisdom in her counsel. Even Kaikeyi, who resorts to low stratagems, displays vast knowledge of dharma in her debate with her husband, King Dasaratha!

Later in the epic, Sita counsels her abductor, Ravana, on his folly and warns that such conduct will destroy him and his whole clan. The dignity with which she deals with the villain should serve as an example for modern mortal young women who feel impelled to take off their footwear and use abusive language with ‘eve-teasers’. Verily God and His divine Consort incarnated as a human couple to serve as role-models for humanity for all time.

The mythological princess Savithri uses her wits and wisdom to bring her husband back from the dead. With her legendary courage, her knowledge and gift of repartee she defeats Yama Dharmaraja, the god of death, the source of immortal wisdom and the giver of the eternal law. Her achievement is matched by the wise King Yudhishtira in the Mahabharata but surpassed by none.

Her debate with Yama summarizes all that is good and best in the Hindu way of life and carries profound mystic symbolisms, which have been explored by Sri Aurobindo in his epic-poem Savitri.

Some simple excerpts from this immortal debate – “When one walks seven steps with someone, he becomes a friend. Therefore, O death, I look upon you as a friend”. When urged to go back to do the last rites to her departed husband, she points out that marriage is a companionship of souls that lasts beyond birth and death.

“For dharma and knowledge the wise perform great austerities. Therefore, O knower of the law, do not command me to transgress”. “Even a single meeting with a good person makes him a life-long friend. The company of such should be sought as it is very fruitful.”

“One should never deceive anyone in thought word or deed; one should instead strive to help others. The good are thus kind even to enemies. Such is my faith. Such is the dharma that binds the world. O Dharmaraja, I have faith in you, for you bind everyone with a common code and you yourself never transgress that law.”

Queen Kunti was believed to be profoundly knowledgeable. Likewise, the princess Draupadi displays her knowledge of the law and the norms of right conduct for men in various walks of life. The modern Hindu woman continues to perpetuate a tradition of martyrdom because she fails to acquaint herself with the laws enacted to procure justice for women in society.

Innumerable examples can be found from the epics not merely for martyrdom but for a tradition of female erudition, wit and worldly wisdom. Tara, the widow of Vali, heals the rift between Sri Rama and Sugriva with her diplomacy and skill of speech, simultaneously protecting the rights of her son, prince Angada. There may be considerable merit in appointing Hindu women as ambassadors.

Our self-imposed ban precludes an elaboration of mythology. Return we must to the realm of biographies like reiterating the words of a familiar song without the music.

Gargi

Arundhatyanasooya cha
Saavitree Jaanakee Satee
Draupadee Kannagee Gaargee
Meera Durgaavatee tathaa ~~ 10 ~~

The name of Gargi figures in the Ekatmata stotra which lists Hindu women who are to be venerated as mother goddesses. The debate between Gargi and Yajnavalkya at the yajnastala, at the sacrifice conducted by Janaka is described in the Brihdaranyaka Upanishad. Other than this, very little is known of the personal life of this great scholar.

The fifth brahmana of the third chapter of this Upanishad describes her as Vachaknavi, the daughter of the rishi Vachaknu. She was known at a very young age as brahmavadini because of the intuitive knowledge of brahmavidya, the eternal reality. Her debate with Yajnavalkya displays both her personal skills and the intellectual advancement of ancient India. She starts the discussion thus – everything in earth is solvable in water, water being the element of cohesion, everything on earth may be said to be based in water. Hence, water surpasses the earth. Which then, is the realm that surpasses water? From modern science we know that two-thirds of the earth’s surface and 70% of the bodies of all living beings including that of human beings, is composed of water. All life arose from the primordial ocean. Both science and religion testify to that. He says it is Vayu or air, which precedes the formation of water. This is literally true because water is formed by a combination of the gases hydrogen and oxygen. Then, they proceed to discuss that ether, and prior to that, the sun precede all creation on earth. We know that it is solar energy that makes the earth habitable. They then proceed to discuss the stellar realms and finally Brahman or God as the ultimate reality upon which all else is based.

When she questions him on the nature of Brahman, he says it should not be discussed and he will have her head off for her impertinence. True to her challenge she puts him on the defensive. One wonders if a male opponent would have been silenced in a like manner. She later braves his displeasure to question once more (chapter 3, brahmana 8).

She puts two questions to him. “What is that which is below the earth, above heaven and yet which is between the two? He answers that this is based on the ethereal principle. For her second question, she asks, “And what is that ether based upon?” He says, it is based on Brahman which may not be perceived but only experienced in Being, just as the seer may see with his eyes and is yet unable to see his own eyes. The discourse then delves into profound philosophy and metaphysical precepts upon which Gargi with great humility proclaims him as a sage who is second to none. The true Hindu woman, regardless of her skills, does not yield to false pride. Thereafter, she resumes her seat and speaks no more. But she has found her place among the greatest of Vedic scholars. Now, it is the young women of Delhi who aspire for seats at the prestigious college named after her !

Maitreyi

“You are indeed my svadharmini, my twin soul, my ardhangi, one half of my own self, for you have proved to be my unfailing companion on the dharmic path.” So spoke the sage Yajnavalkya to his wife Maitreyi. The sage had two wives: Katyayini and Maitreyi. On completing his duties as a grahasthin or house-holder, he prepares to depart for an ascetic’s life in the forest after advising his two wives to share his worldly wealth among them. Katyayini is content to claim her share, whereas Maitreyi declines hers.

She asks him what wealth is to be found in the seclusion of the forests. She shrewdly observes, that despite all the wealth and the favour of kings at his disposal, her husband aspires for greater ‘wealth and power’. He then shares with her, the limitless and imperishable wealth of his knowledge, and together they embark upon a path of spiritual glory in the forests.

Their discussions on the nature of the finite reality and the absolute truth comprise many chapters of the Brihdaranyaka Upanishad and are beyond the scope of this text. Folklore describes that it was Gargi who instructed the sage on the true meaning of marriage. That marriage was not merely a means for begetting progeny, but husbands and wives were intended to be constant companions on the dharmic path. Sage Yajnavalkya and his wife Maitreyi are testimony to this fact. The story of Maitreyi goes to show that women had achieved equal status on the intellectual and spiritual plane in the days of yore.

Sulabhi

The yogini Sulabhi was believed to be capable of assuming any form at will. She thus goes to the court of the Emperor Janaka, as a beautiful maiden, to test the extent of his emancipation from material things. She finds that he has indeed conquered sensual urges. She points out however, that though he is king, he has not gained “mastery of his own house,” meaning thereby, the material body. Their debate goes into Tantra and metaphysics. Her discussion on the sensory pathways and the process of child-birth is largely consistent with modern science. For instance, she says vision represents a fusion of four elements – the nature of the object, sunlight by which it is seen, the condition of the eye of the observer and his / her state of mind. All this is borne out by science.

She says whether a child is a girl or a boy, is determined in the womb at conception. Also, that the foetus comes to possess a life of its own, mid-way in pregnancy. All this is consistent with the scientific theories of viability and gender determination.

Ubhaya Bharathi

During the 5th-6th century BC, Hinduism entered a phase of degeneracy with Upanishadic philosophy being replaced by mindless ritualism, when Jainism and Buddhism came to holds way. Foremost among the scholars, who restored Hinduism to its former glory, was Sri Adi Shankara, founder of a religious order that established four strongholds in the four directions and holds sway until this day.

One of his numerous accomplishments was to engage scholars across the length and breadth of the country in productive debate, so as to codify the Hindu scriptures and modes of worship. One of his celebrated debates was with Mandana Mishra, a renowned shastric scholar. Enter the latter’s wife, Bharathi, in the role of judge, to this contest.

So great was Ubhaya Bharathi’s mastery of the Vedas and Shastras that she was regarded as the goddess Saraswathi Herself in human form. The standards of fairness and objectivity she established, rendered all spectators speechless. After a prolonged debate lasting several days she conceded victory to the challenger, Sri Adi Shankara. Her own husband had to accept defeat. This episode counters the myth that women are sentimentalists not given to critical analysis.

However, she picks up the gauntlet on behalf of her husband and proves to be the only scholar in the land who could match to a degree the intellectual storm unleashed by Sri Adi Shankara. After a heated debate, she questions the seer on married life. Having no experience in that aspect of life, Sri Adi Shankara briefly assumes the role of a grihasthin, at the royal household of Kashi and returns to ultimately defeat her in the debate. She joins her husband in entering the religious order established by Sri Adi Shankara.

The greatest wonder is that she is said to have been fully devoted to mundane household chores through the entire period. This may be interpreted both favourably and unfavourably. Equally great, Sri Adi Shankara did not show even a trace of intellectual chauvinism.

Avvaiyar

The name of this saint-poetess is a household word in Tamil Nadu, yet her life is shrouded in mystery. Fact and folklore are woven together inextricably. Thus, we have no recorded history of her life, save the oral traditions and some accounts of contemporaries. The word Avvaiyar means venerable dame and it is possible that there may have been more than one poetess by this name. But over fifty compositions are attributed to her. She is said to have transformed herself into an elderly woman in order to avoid the bondage of matrimony. This, despite the fact that her beauty attracted no less than the king of the land, as a potential suitor. She then devoted herself to a life of chastity, service and intellectual pursuits. This was a woman who clearly valued her intellectual assets over the physical or material.

Children are literally exposed to her works from the cradle. Her composition Attichoodi is primer of the Tamil alphabet where instead of ‘A’ for Apple and so on children are instructed in the niceties of dharma. The very first line aram cheyya virumbu says that one should desire to adhere to dharma in thought and deed.

She was an iconoclast who refused to bow to traditional ritualistic modes of worship. She called for an egalitarian society rejecting barriers of caste and gender. She addresses her peers as women of the ‘caste of bards’. In contradistinction to the submissive stereotype for the Hindu woman, her poetry urges mothers to be heroic in order to have valiant sons. Furthermore, her poetry fosters self-esteem. Quoting at random: “A family life foregoing self-respect! It is better by far to lead the life of a wandering mendicant.” “Boycotting the doorstep of one who shows us no respect is worth one crore gold coins”.

She describes her first patron, King Netuman Anci, as a majestic elephant, gentle with his subjects, as with children who play with his tusks, yet, crushing his adversaries like an elephant in rut. Hers was a pride tinged with humility: “What one knows is like unto a handful (of earth), what one is yet to learn akin to the entire universe!”

How many such women will we lose every day before we take education to the masses?

Bibliography

1. Swami Krishnananda, discourses & articles, The Divine Life Society, Sivananda Ashram, Rishikesh, India.

2. Swami Krishnananda, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad

3. Bhakthivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Bhagvad Gita As It Is

4. C. Rajagopalashari, The Ramayana, Bhavan’s publications.

Online Resources

5. Sushila Patil and Moses Seenarine,
Letter to Gargi,
http://www.saxakali.com SaxakaliPublications/gargi.htm

6. Desiraju Hanumanta Rao & K.M.K. Murthy, Valmiki Ramayana,
http://www.valmikiramayan.net

7. Free India: http://www.freeindia.org

8. About Ramakrishna Paramahamsa:
http://www.angelfire.com/ma/ramakrishna

9. Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center of New York http://www.ramakrishna.org